Sense of Science: Astronomy Guidebook

Copyright © 2009
American Printing House for the Blind, Inc.
Louisville, KY 40206-0085

All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America

This publication is protected by Copyright and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise.

Sense of Science: Astronomy [Kit]
APH Catalog Number: 1-08991-00
Large Print Teacher's Guidebook
APH Catalog Number: 7-08991-00
Braille Teacher's Guidebook
APH Catalog Number: 5-08991-00

Sense of Science Astronomy Worksheets
APH Catalog Number: 1-08992-00
Sense of Science Astronomy Quick Fact Cards
APH Catalog Number: 1-08993-00

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Project Staff

Karen J. Poppe
Tactile Graphics Project Leader/Author

Monica Vaught-Compton
Editor

Tom Poppe
Model/Pattern Maker

Terri Gilmore
Cover/Text Layout Designer

David McGee
Manufacturing Specialist

Rosanne Hoffmann, Erica Rucker, Ann Travis
Research Assistants

Helen Kielkopf
Consultant

Bisig Impact Group
Guidebook Layout

Photos Courtesy of NASA
www.nasaimages.org

Acknowledgements

The following teachers of the visually impaired contributed their time, knowledge, and creativity to the evaluation of Sense of Science: Astronomy:

Christina Di Lullo, Teacher of the Visually Impaired, Educational Services Center for Cuyahoga County, Cuyahoga, Ohio
Susan Dunlop, Teacher of the Visually Impaired, Rockwall Independent School District, Rockwall, Texas
Joan Etter, Supplemental Services Teacher of the Visually Impaired, Clermont County Educational Services Center, Batavia, Ohio
Linda Huntoon, Science Teacher, Florida School for the Deaf and Blind, St. Augustine, Florida
Alice Ridgeway, Middle School Science Teacher, Georgia Academy for the Blind, Macon, Georgia
Cindy Jo Ruiz Robinson, Teacher of the Visually Impaired, Louisiana School for the Visually Impaired, Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Twila Whitten, Teacher of the Visually Impaired, Silverton Independent School District, Silverton, Texas
Catherine Summ, Education Consultant, State of Connecticut Board of Education Services for the Blind, Windsor, Connecticut
Marcia Wykoff, Teacher of the Visually Impaired/Special Services, Weiser School District, Weiser, Idaho
Special thanks to the 86 students who were involved in the field test of this product.

Table of Contents

 Sense of Science: Astronomy

 Acknowledgements

 Introduction

 Activity 1: Our Solar System-A Cosmic Neighborhood

 Activity 2: Slices of the Sun

 Activity 3: MERCURY-Sun's Closest Neighbor

 Activity 4: VENUS-The Greenhouse Planet

 Activity 5: EARTH-Our Home Planet

 Activity 6: MARS-The Red Planet

 Activity 7: JUPITER-The Largest Planet

 Activity 8: SATURN-The Ringed Planet

 Activity 9: URANUS-The Tilted Planet

 Activity 10: NEPTUNE-The Outermost Planet

 Activity 11: PLUTO-The Dwarf Planet

 Activity 12: Earth's Moon

 Activity 13: Solar and Lunar Eclipses

 Activity 14: Stargazers

 Activity 15: Creating Constellations

 Activity 16: Galaxies Galore

 Activity 17: Milky Way Galaxy

 Activity 18: Abundant Asteroids

 Activity 19: Cool Comets

 Activity 20: Space Exploration

 Appendix A: Astronomy Overlays and Displays-Suggested Uses

 Appendix B: Astronomy Websites

 Appendix C: Resources

 Glossary

 Bibliography


Introduction

Sense of Science: Astronomy at a Glance

Sense of Science: Astronomy makes the study of Earth and space accessible, understandable, and enjoyable to students who are visually impaired, as well as to other students who may benefit from a multi-sensory approach to learning.

The guidebook presents easy-to-follow activities covering common astronomy concepts such as the planets, the Sun, the Moon, constellations, galaxies, comets, asteroids, and so forth. In an attempt to provide a "tactile journey" through space, the activities incorporate hands-on exploration, primarily with the use of tactile and visual displays, as well as with the building and exploration of models. The activities are consistent with the National Science Education Standards, especially the three major areas of Earth and Space Science, Content Standard D:

  1.   Properties of Earth materials

  2.   Objects in the sky

  3.   Changes in Earth and sky

Sense of Science: Astronomy includes a collection of visual and tactile overlays and displays, along with two custom-designed trays. Although the overlays and trays can be used as stand-alone materials, they are intended for use with APH's Light Box and Mini-Lite Box. The visual and tactile overlays aid in reviewing and reinforcing concepts taught throughout the activities. [Refer to Appendix A for suggested uses of the overlays and fold-out displays.]

Reasons to Study Astronomy

Unlike the concepts covered in previously published Sense of Science modules-Plants and Animals, the concepts encountered in Astronomy tend to be very abstract and not "within reach" without sight. However, these concepts can be introduced to and understood by tactile learners in ways that allow them to...

   *   enjoy the unique patterns, cycles, and other phenomena in our Universe.

   *   appreciate the Universe's changeable as well as predictable ways.

   *   become familiar with the classifications of objects (i.e., planets, galaxies, stars, etc.) belonging to our Universe.

   *   explore the history of space discoveries, travel, and technology.

   *   consider career options in the areas of Earth and space sciences.

   *   successfully answer questions posed on standardized tests related to astronomy concepts.

   *   participate in discussions regarding the latest research and findings in the area of astronomy.

   *   gain a sense of responsibility and appreciation for our home-Earth.

   *   appreciate the Universe's vastness and unending mystery.

Activity Components

The activities presented in Sense of Science: Astronomy follow the same basic design and incorporate the following components:

Objective: The purpose of the activity and expected outcome.

Vocabulary: New vocabulary words encountered throughout the activity.

Materials: Supplies needed to carry out the activity.

Procedure: An outline of the suggested progression of the activity.

Extension Activities: Activities that go one step further for older or advanced students.

Math Connection: A task that involves math skills such as measuring, counting, and patterning as related to the activity.

Language Connection: A task that involves reading and writing skills, such as journal writing and composition of stories or poems related to the activity.

Visual Adaptation: Suggested way(s) to accommodate a student with visual impairments, such as providing good visual contrast, tactile experiences, and adapted educational materials. Appropriate APH astronomy overlays, displays, and other study materials are recommended in this section as well.

Science Tidbit: An interesting or little known fact about the planets, galaxies, the Sun, the Moon, and so forth, as related to the activity.

Additional Study Materials

Quick Fact Cards

Braille/print Astronomy Quick Fact Cards are provided for each of the planets, Pluto, the Sun, and the Moon. These Quick Fact Cards can be used for the student's independent study. Students might enjoy using them to quiz each other by reading the clues aloud (in any order) until the object is correctly identified.

Astronomy Worksheets

The Astronomy Worksheets, provided in both hardcopy and on CD, allow the student(s) to research and record the correct information for each of the following:

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet

   *   Planet Ranking by Distance from the Sun

   *   Planet Ranking by Orbital Period

   *   Planet Ranking by Rotation Period

   *   Planet Ranking by Size

   *   Planet Ranking by Temperature

   *   Famous Astronomers

In general, activities included in Sense of Science: Astronomy serve as a scaffold on which to build. The teacher's creativity will inspire extensions and modifications based on the age and/or grade level of the student(s). The primary objective should be to instill a curiosity, wonderment, and love of science related to astronomy in students with visual impairments and blindness.


Activity 1: Our Solar System-A Cosmic Neighborhood


Objective:

Learn about our Solar System "neighborhood," past and present theories of its structure, and the general concept of "space."

Vocabulary:

Axis, equator, gas giant, geocentric theory, gravity, heliocentric theory, Kuiper Belt, Milky Way, Moon, Oort Cloud, orbit, planet, revolution, ring system, rotation, Solar System, space, Sun, terrestrial planet, Universe

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Astronomy Quick Fact Cards

   *   Astronomy Worksheets

Optional Materials (for Math Connection and Visual Adaptation):

   *   Assortment of fruit, vegetables, and/or sports balls (to mimic relative sizes of the planets)

   *   Tactile displays/maps/globes (to use during explanation of "space")

   *   (2) Styrofoam(TM) balls-one larger than the other

   *   (2) toothpicks

   *   Strip of graphic art tape (enough to wrap around the diameter of the smallest Styrofoam(TM) ball)

Procedure:

Ask students to name objects that make up our Solar System, our "cosmic neighborhood," and what they might already know about each. [The Sun, planets, comets, dwarf planets, asteroids, natural satellites/moons, meteoroids, Kuiper Belt objects, the Oort Cloud, and interplanetary dust and gas.]

Where is our Solar System located? [It is located in the Milky Way Galaxy and includes the Sun and all the objects that travel around it. It was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.]

Note: Enhance students' understanding of the Milky Way Galaxy by utilizing Activity 17 in this guidebook.

The planets in our Solar System are classified as inner planets and outer planets, separated by the Asteroid Belt. Review the differences between the inner and outer planets of our Solar System. Can students name which planets belong to each group and some of the identifying characteristics of each?

Inner Planets

   *   Include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

   *   Four planets closest to the Sun.

   *   All are terrestrial planets with a solid, rocky surface with a metal core.

   *   Lie between the Sun and the Asteroid Belt.

   *   Their orbits are closer to each other than those of the outer planets.

   *   During their early formation, they were bombarded by asteroids and meteorites.

   *   Have fewer moons/natural satellites than the outer planets.

   *   They have diameters less than 8,078 miles (13,000 kilometers).

Outer Planets:

   *   Include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

   *   Are considered "gas giants" because they are rich in hydrogen, helium, and other gases.

   *   All have a ring system.

   *   Their orbits are separated by huge gaps of space.

   *   They have diameters greater than 29,826 miles (48,000 kilometers).

As the Sun and each planet in our Solar System are studied throughout this guidebook, suggested instructions are provided to build a Styrofoam(TM) model of each. Once all are built, these individual models can be used to construct a 3-D classroom model of our Solar System that will complement the provided overlays and two-dimensional displays in the Sense of Science: Astronomy kit. Have the students position the models on a large table, or on the floor, to represent their relative position to each other. Emphasize that models are not in scale with the planets' actual sizes, nor are their orbits in scale with their actual distances from the Sun. Be sure to label the Sun and each planet with a print/braille label.

Extension Activities:

Using Our Solar System Display (with labels applied for each of the planets, the Sun, and the Asteroid Belt), explain that this layout represents the current heliocentric (Sun-centered) model of the Solar System. According to this model, all the planets (and everything in the Solar System) revolve around the Sun. Compare this model to the geocentric (Earth-centered) theory suggested long ago by Greek scientists-that the planets and Sun rotated around the Earth.

Math Connection:

As each planet is studied during subsequent activities presented within this guidebook, students can begin researching and recording the information needed to complete each Sense of Science Astronomy Worksheet. These worksheets will allow the students to compare the planets' relative sizes, temperatures, orbital periods, rotation periods, and relative distances from the Sun.

Use an assortment of fruits, vegetables, and/or sports balls to mimic the relative size of the planets. Have students order them according to their distance from the Sun (closest to farthest). Have them identify which is the largest, smallest, closest in size to Earth, etc. Complement this activity with the use of the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Language Connection:

Review the meaning of important concepts/terms frequently encountered during the discussion of planets:

Axis   The imaginary line through a planet's center, from north to south poles, around which a planet spins like a top.

Ellipse   The shape of each planet's orbital path that resembles a squashed circle.

Gravity   A force between bodies that attracts one to the other. The more mass a planet has, the more powerful its gravity. The Sun's mass has a tremendous gravitational pull on the objects in the Solar System.

Orbit   A planet's path around the Sun. All planets orbit the Sun in a counterclockwise direction.

Revolution   The amount of time it takes for a planet to travel (orbit) around the Sun once-the length of its year.

Rotation   The amount of time it takes for a planet to rotate about its axis-the length of its day.

Invite students to create original mnemonics for remembering the correct order of the planets based on distance from the Sun (closest to farthest).

Example: My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nachos

Allow students to regularly post "Space News" from the newspaper and Internet on a classroom bulletin board as related to recent discoveries about planets, stars, galaxies, and other objects in our Solar System.

Encourage students to become familiar with interesting facts about each planet, as well as the Sun and the Moon, by using the provided Astronomy Quick Fact Cards.

Have students complete the Famous Astronomers Worksheet [WS-7] and become familiar with those who contributed to our understanding of the Universe such as Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, Newton, and so on. Have each student (or pair of students) select an astronomer to further research and write a report about.

Visual Adaptation:

Our Solar System includes a vast volume of space that stretches out in all directions from the Sun. The general concept of "space" may be difficult to understand by the tactile reader. Where does space begin? How far does it extend? Does it begin and end abruptly? These are all challenging questions to answer. Use the following sequence to "zoom out" from the space the student personally occupies to the space occupied by our Solar System. Supplement each step with a tactile diagram, map, and globe, using the provided Our Solar System Display as the last model. Discuss approximately how much space each step (i.e., room, building, neighborhood, etc.) occupies?

  1.   Personal space (space in which you are standing)

  2.   Room in which you are standing

  3.   Building in which the room is located

  4.   Neighborhood in which the building is located

  5.   City in which the neighborhood is located

  6.   County in which the city is located

  7.   State in which the county is located

  8.   Country in which the state is located

  9.   Continent in which the country is located

  10.   Planet in which the continent is located

  11.   Solar System in which the planet is located

Emphasize that our Solar System is part of the entire Universe. The Universe includes all galaxies and contents of space.

Use Our Solar System Display to assess students' understanding of each planet's position in our Solar System, as well as the location of the Sun and Asteroid Belt. Discuss the "inner" and "outer" regions of our cosmic neighborhood. Point out how the Asteroid Belt serves as a boundary line between the two regions.

Use the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay and Relative Distances of the Planets Display to illustrate how the planets vary in diameter, as well as in distance from the Sun.

Use the Planetary Orbits Overlay to reinforce concepts such as ellipse, revolution, and orbit.

Demonstrate the difference between the terms rotation (about a planet's axis) and revolution (planet's orbit around the Sun) using two Styrofoam(TM) balls, one larger than the other. Begin by inserting toothpicks into opposite ends of the smaller ball, leaving at least 1/2-inch of each toothpick exposed. Create an equator around the center of the ball with graphic art tape, leaving a slight gap between the beginning and end of the strip. This gap will help the student visually and tactually notice when the "planet" has completed a single rotation. Have the student rotate the "planet" on its axis. Then position the larger ball (the "Sun") on a table. Revolve the "planet" around the "Sun" in a counterclockwise motion. Emphasize that one rotation of the planet on its axis is equal to the length of its "day," and one revolution of the planet around the Sun is equal to the length of its "year."

Science Tidbit:

Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006. Until then it was considered the smallest planet in the Solar System.

Spacecraft have visited or orbited every planet in the Solar System.

Visit the following Websites for more information about the Solar System:

*   NASA: Solar System Exploration
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/index.cfm

*   NASA: Jet Propulsion Laboratory: California Institute of Technology: Solar System
http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/solar-system/index.cfm

*   Views of the Solar System
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm

*   National Air and Space Museum: Exploring the Planets: Our Solar System
http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/ceps/etp/ss/

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Solar System
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system


Activity 2: Slices of the Sun


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the Sun and create a model of the Sun's layers.

Vocabulary:

Aurora, chromosphere, convective (or convection) zone, core, corona, photosphere, prominence, radiative (or radiation) zone, solar eclipse, solar flare, sunspot

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Cross-Section of the Sun Overlay

   *   Quick Fact Card: SUN

Materials for building a model of the Sun for classroom display:

   *   (1) 5" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (yellow)

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Sun" affixed to a toothpick

Optional Materials:

   *   (1) paper plate for each student

   *   Small collection of craft materials and/or food to represent each layer of the Sun

   *   Labeling material (to make braille and print labels)

   *   (1) orange

   *   APH's Picture Maker and/or Draftsman

   *   Reference sources (books and Websites) about the Sun

Procedure:

Review unique features of the Sun with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about the Sun.

Some features and characteristics of the Sun include:

   *   It is the center of our Solar System.

   *   It is the largest object in our Solar System.

   *   It is the closest star to Earth.

   *   It is composed of mostly hydrogen and helium.

   *   It is not a solid sphere like the planet Earth.

   *   It is about 4.5 billion years old.

   *   It is 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) miles away from the Earth.

Discuss how the Sun benefits the Earth. [The Sun is extremely important to living organisms. It is the source of the Earth's light and heat. Without it, there would be no life on Earth.] What are some of the dangers or negative effects of the Sun? [The Sun emits potentially harmful ultraviolet radiation that can damage a person's eyes or skin.]

Review the different layers of the Sun and the notable features of each.

Core-The Sun's core is the innermost layer and the source of most of the Sun's energy. Its temperatures are tremendously high-about 27 million degrees Fahrenheit (15 million degrees Celsius).

Radiative (or Radiation) Zone-This layer of the Sun is next to the core and emits radiation. Energy bounces back-and-forth in this layer in waves before it escapes to the convection zone. This layer's temperature is cooler than that of the core.

Convective (or Convection) Zone-This is the outermost layer of the solar interior and is characterized by a churning motion created when hot gases rise and then fall as they cool. It has lower temperatures than the core and radiative zone.

Photosphere-This is the innermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere with temperatures about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit (5,500 degrees Celsius). Visible from Earth, it is considered the "surface" of the Sun and makes the Sun appear as a solid sphere.

Chromosphere-This is a thin layer of the Sun's atmosphere that is characterized by rising temperatures ranging from about 11,000 degrees Fahrenheit (6,000 degrees Celsius) to 36,000 degrees Fahrenheit (20,000 degrees Celsius). It gives off a reddish glow. 

Corona-This is the outermost layer of the Sun's atmosphere and is only visible during a total solar eclipse. It is made up of extremely thin gases. The average temperature of the corona is 1.8 million degrees Fahrenheit (one million degrees Celsius). Only the Sun's core is hotter than the corona.

Caution: Inform students that people should never look directly at the Sun; to do so can cause severe eye damage and/or visual impairment.

Make a model of the Sun using a 5-inch Styrofoam(TM) ball. Paint it with a bright yellow acrylic paint. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Sun" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of the Sun that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of the Sun.

Create a model of the Sun's layers. Here are some options:

  1.   Using a paper plate, have each student (or pairs of students) create a model of the Sun's layers. Provide a variety of textured materials that can be glued onto the plate in rings to show the layers of the Sun. For example, an orange pompom can represent the core, a ring of red craft foam dots can represent the chromosphere, yellow rick-rack can represent the corona, and so on. Have students label the various layers.

  2.   Have students represent the various layers of the Sun like so:

       a.   Have a single student represent the core of the Sun. Wrap a blanket around his shoulders to indicate that it is very warm in the center of the Sun.

       b.   Have three or four students form a ring around the core to represent the radiation zone. Let them hold hands and move their arms slowly up and down to represent the wave-like motion of the gases in this layer.

       c.   Have a larger group of students form a ring around the radiation zone to form the convection zone. Students in this ring slowly trade places with the person next to them to represent the churning motion of this layer.
   
       d.   The next ring of students will form the photosphere by standing shoulder to shoulder to create the apparent solid rim of the Sun as seen from Earth.

       e.   The next ring of students will form the chromosphere. Have each student in this ring hold a ribbon that he can flare occasionally (past the corona layer) to represent prominences that rise up through the chromosphere from the photosphere.

       f.   The outer group of students will represent the corona, leaving some space between each other to allow for occasional prominences.

Note: If not enough students are available to build all six layers of the Sun, build only the three innermost layers, then later build the three outermost layers.

Extension Activities:

Have students research the following solar phenomena and explain the differences between each.

Sunspots

   *   darker, cooler areas that appear on the Sun's photosphere

   *   not permanent

   *   number of sunspots vary from year to year in a cyclic pattern, reaching a maximum every 11 years

   *   usually form in pairs

   *   have strong magnetic fields

Solar Flares

   *   sudden bursts of hot gases that erupt from the Sun's photosphere

   *   give off large amounts of radiation

   *   affect Earth's atmosphere causing light phenomena such as auroras

   *   can interfere with radio transmissions, telephones, and other electronic communications on Earth

Prominences

   *   gigantic loops of gases that arise from the Sun's surface

   *   rise up through the chromosphere from the photosphere, extend into the corona, and then flow back into the Sun

   *   held above the Sun's surface by strong magnetic fields

   *   can loop hundreds of thousands of miles into space

Math Connection:

Have students research the answers to the following:

What is the diameter of the Sun?

How does its size compare to Earth's?

How long is its rotation period?

Is its rotation period longer at its equator or its poles?

Using information discussed and researched during this activity, as well as information given on the accompanying Quick Fact Card about the Sun, have each student create a math quiz about the Sun and then share it with classmates to solve.

Language Connection:

Explain that in Greek and Roman mythology, the Sun was personified as "Helios" and "Sol," respectively. Have students write a story that personifies the Sun and have it speak directly to the planets around it, highlighting important facts about its size, position, layers, etc.

Have small groups research and prepare a written report of the positive or negative effects of the Sun on people and the Earth. Have each group report its findings to the entire class.

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Cross-Section of the Sun Overlay to review the various layers of the Sun. Emphasize starting at the center (the core) and moving outward (to the corona). Point out the solar prominence that extends from the lower left side of the Sun.

Review that the Sun is a giant ball of gas. It does not have a solid surface or a smooth circumference. Using a tactile drawing board (e.g., Draftsman or Picture Maker), illustrate how the Sun is commonly drawn, that is, a complete circle surrounded by straight lines representing the Sun's rays. How is this model of the Sun misleading with regard to its true structure?

To demonstrate the meaning of the term "cross-section," cut an orange in half and explain that the center of the orange half is like the core of Sun and the outer rind is like the Sun's corona. Discuss/review differences between the orange model and the real Sun (for example, the orange has solid features and the Sun does not).

Use real objects to demonstrate the relative sizes of the Sun (e.g., a basketball) and Earth (a braille dot).

Science Tidbit:

Solar flares can cause atmospheric "sunquakes" that produce ripples or waves across the Sun's surface.

Launched in 1992, the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) is a mission shared by NASA and the European Space Agency to study the Sun. For more information, visit the SOHO Website: http://sohowww.nascom.nasa.gov/about/about.html

Visit the following Websites for more information about the Sun:

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Sun
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/sun-article.html

*   NASA: Solar Physics: Marshall Space Flight Center: Why We Study the Sun
http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/whysolar.shtml

*   Space Weather Center: Living with a Star
http://www.spaceweathercenter.org/living_with_a_star/01/01.html


Activity 3: MERCURY-Sun's Closest Neighbor


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Mercury and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Caloris Basin, core, crater, crust, mantle, Mercury, terrestrial planet

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: MERCURY

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 1-1/4" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Pencil with eraser end

   *   Acrylic paint (orange) and paintbrush

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Mercury" affixed to a toothpick

Other materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Paper plate (for each student) and available craft materials (e.g., craft foam, yarn, textured paper) to represent the layers of Mercury

Procedure:

Review unique features of Mercury with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Mercury include:

   *   Closest planet to the Sun.

   *   One of the four terrestrial planets.

   *   Has a heavily cratered and wrinkled surface with high cliffs.

   *   Smallest planet in the Solar System.

   *   Has a very thin, almost non-existent atmosphere.

   *   Has a very weak magnetic field.

   *   Experiences an extreme range of temperatures from night to day.

   *   Rotates slowly on its axis, but orbits rapidly around the Sun.

   *   Orbits the Sun faster than any other planet.

   *   Has no moons.

   *   Its largest feature is a crater called the Caloris Basin that measures 800 miles (1,300 kilometers) in diameter.

Discuss reasons for Mercury's cratered surface. [Many millions of years ago, Mercury was hit by large rocky bodies, such as asteroids.]

Discuss reasons for Mercury's wrinkled surface. [As Mercury's large iron core cooled, it contracted causing its surface to wrinkle.]

Make a model of the planet Mercury. Using the eraser end of a pencil, punch a large "crater" into a 1-1/4" Styrofoam(TM) ball to represent the Caloris Basin. Then paint the ball with orange acrylic paint. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Mercury" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Mercury that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Mercury.

Extension Activities:

Have each student make a paper plate model of a cross-section of Mercury's layers. Start by gluing or coloring a large circle (of a contrasting color/texture) that covers about three-fourths of the plate's center to represent Mercury's large metallic core (made of nickel and iron). Add another ring, of another color/texture, around the core to represent the intermediate rock layer or mantle. The remaining rippled portion of the plate can represent the brittle, crusty surface of the planet. Label the different layers.

Compare and contrast the features of Mercury and Earth's Moon. For example:

Similarities:

   *   Both have cratered and old surfaces.

   *   Both go through visual changes (or phases) in shape and size from Earth's perspective.

   *   Both reflect about the same percentage of received sunlight.

Differences:

   *   Mercury is a planet in the Solar System.

   *   The Moon orbits the planet Earth.

   *   Mercury orbits the Sun.

   *   Mercury is much denser than the Moon.

Review how craters are formed on Mercury's surface and why the craters vary in size and depth.

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Mercury. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 38 pounds on Mercury. A helpful Website for these calculations is http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/index.html

Have students create math problems that compare Mercury to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Earth's diameter than Mercury's?

7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) - 3,032 miles (4,880 kilometers) = ?

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Mercury's?

93 million miles (150 million kilometers) - 36 million miles (58 million kilometers) = ?

If you lived on Mercury for 9 of its years, how many Earth years would you have spent?

1 Mercurian year = 88 Earth days

1 Earth year = 365 Earth days

Answer: 2.17 Earth years

Make an 8-inch cardboard circle to represent the diameter of Earth. Make several additional 3-inch circles to represent the diameter of Mercury. How many Mercury planets will fit across Earth's diameter?

Research the high and low temperature extremes of Mercury:

Daytime temperatures: 806°F (430°C)

Nighttime temperatures: -274°F (-170°C)

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Mercury: "Scorched World," "Airless Planet," "Metal Planet," "Hot/Cold Extreme Planet," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Mercury was named after the winged Roman god of travel, commerce, and thievery because it appears to move so swiftly across the sky.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Mercury.

Many of Mercury's craters are named for deceased musicians, artists, and writers. Have students research and make a list of these individuals. Examples include Beethoven, Mark Twain, Renoir, Goya, Botticelli, and Homer.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Mercury.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Mercury's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Mercury's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Mercury's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Mercury in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

The Mariner 10 spacecraft mapped nearly half of Mercury's surface in 1974-1975. In January 2008, the MESSENGER spacecraft made the first of three scheduled flybys; it will go into orbit around Mercury in 2011.

"The Spider" (also known as Pantheon Fossae) is a newly discovered feature on Mercury and is located in the center of the Caloris Basin. It is a large impact crater with over a hundred narrow, flat-floored cracks radiating from its central region.

A flyby of NASA's MESSENGER revealed that past volcanic activity played a central role in forming Mercury's surface. For more information about the MESSENGER, visit the following sites:

*   MESSENGER: MErcury Surface Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging
http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/

*   MESSENGER Explores Mercury
http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Mercury/MercuryBackground.html


Activity 4: VENUS-The Greenhouse Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Venus and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Greenhouse effect, inferior planet, retrograde rotation, terrestrial planet, Venus

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: VENUS

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 1-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Aluminum foil (enough to wrap around the Styrofoam(TM) ball)

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Venus" affixed to a toothpick

Procedure:

Review unique features of Venus with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Venus include:

   *   Second planet from the Sun.

   *   One of the four terrestrial planets.

   *   Takes longer to rotate on its axis than it does to orbit the Sun.

   *   Spins on its axis in the opposite direction to Earth.

   *   Brighter than any other planet.

   *   Most of its surface is composed of volcanoes and volcanic rock.

   *   Hottest planet in the Solar System.

   *   Has no moons.

   *   Has a very heavy atmosphere composed mostly of carbon dioxide.

   *   Has the most nearly circular orbit of any other planet in the Solar System.

   *   Lacks a magnetic field.

   *   Considered an inferior planet, like Mercury, because its orbit is closer to the Sun than Earth's orbit is.

Discuss why Venus is so bright in the sky. [The sulfuric clouds that surround Venus reflect the Sun's light back into space. Sunlight cannot penetrate the thick atmosphere.]

Discuss Venus's unusual rotation on its own axis. [Venus has a retrograde rotation. Although it orbits the Sun counterclockwise, it rotates clockwise on its axis, opposite Earth and most other planets. Therefore, if you were standing on Venus, the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east.]

Make a model of the planet Venus. Wrap aluminum foil around a 1-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball, pinching areas to create "volcanoes." Affix a print and/or braille label of "Venus" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Venus that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Venus.

Extension Activities:

Discuss why Venus is hotter than Mercury despite being farther away from the Sun. Include a discussion of "greenhouse effect." [Venus is hotter than Mercury because heat that penetrates its sulfuric clouds is trapped, making the temperature rise, as in a greenhouse. The clouds and carbon dioxide in its atmosphere keep the heat from escaping back into space.]

Compare and contrast the features of Venus and Earth. For example:

Similarities:

   *   Size

   *   Gravity

   *   Mass

   *   Iron core interior

Differences (that make Venus especially inhospitable to humans):

   *   Venus lacks water.

   *   Venus is extremely hot with an average surface temperature of 869°F (465°C).

   *   Venus's atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth.

   *   Venus has an atmosphere of carbon dioxide that is not breathable by humans.

   *   Venus has fierce winds: Its top layer of clouds spin at 230 miles (370 kilometers) an hour; its lower layer of clouds spin at 130 miles (209 kilometers) an hour.

[Compare Venus's wind speed to the Fujita Scale used to classify tornadoes. How would Venus's winds rank?]

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Venus. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 91 pounds on Venus.

Have students create math problems that compare Venus to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Earth's diameter than Venus's?

7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) - 7,521 miles (12,104 kilometers) = ?

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Venus's?

93 million miles (150 million kilometers) - 67 million miles (108 million kilometers) = ?

If you lived on Venus for 10 of its years, how many Earth years would you have spent?

1 Venusian year = 225 Earth days

1 Earth year = 365 Earth days

Answer: 6.16 Earth years

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Venus: "Greenhouse Planet," "Earth's Twin," "Evening Star," "Morning Star," "Sulfuric Cloud Planet," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. [Venus is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty.]

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Venus.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Venus.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Venus's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Venus's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Venus's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Visit an actual greenhouse.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Venus in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

From 1990 to 1994, NASA's spacecraft Magellan used radar to map Venus's surface.

In 2005, the European Space Agency sent the Venus Express spacecraft to study Venus's atmosphere.

Scientists think that volcanoes still erupt on Venus.

"Transit of Venus" is the rare event in which Venus passes directly between the Earth and the Sun, appearing as a large black dot traveling across the Sun. Have students research in which years this event has occurred since the invention of the telescope. A helpful Website is http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/transit/venus0412.html

Venus has "pancake volcanoes," which are eruptions of very thick lava.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Venus:

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Venus
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/venus-article.html

*   Universe Today: Venus
http://www.universetoday.com/category/venus/


Activity 5: EARTH-Our Home Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Earth, build a model of the planet, and understand how the Earth's tilt causes seasonal changes.

Vocabulary:

Astronomical unit, autumnal equinox, axis, core, crust, Earth, equator, hemisphere, mantle, Moon, seasons, solstice, terrestrial planet, vernal equinox

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: EARTH

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

   *   Planet Ranking by Distance from the Sun Worksheet [WS-2]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 1-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (blue and green)

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Earth" affixed to a toothpick

Other Materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Pencil with eraser end

   *   Tactile sticker or label

   *   Small bowl or orange

   *   Soft foam stress ball with Earth's image

   *   Graphic art tape

   *   Hula hoop

   *   World globe

   *   Assorted collage materials (or food items) for students to build a model of Earth's layers

Procedure:

Review unique features of Earth with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Earth include:

   *   Third planet from the Sun.

   *   Largest of the four terrestrial planets.

   *   Only planet that supports animal and plant life.

   *   It has one natural satellite-our Moon.

   *   Orbits the Sun in 365.25 days.

   *   Rotates on its axis every 24 hours.

   *   Water covers 70 percent of the Earth's surface.

   *   Has continents that rise above sea level.

   *   Its continental plates shift around over long periods of time.

Make a model of the planet Earth by using a 1-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball. Paint it a combination of blue (for water) and green (for land). Affix a print and/or braille label of "Earth" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Earth that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Earth.

Extension Activities:

Discuss why seasons occur on Earth. [Although Earth always tilts in the same direction with respect to the background or stars as it orbits the Sun, sometimes the Northern Hemisphere, and sometimes the Southern Hemisphere, receives the most sunlight. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere.] Explain how polar zones experience the greatest seasonal change, while areas near the equator experience balmy temperatures year round.

The seasons are marked by solstices and equinoxes. Solstices mark the points at which the poles are tilted at the maximum toward or away from the Sun. Have students research when solstices occur.

During the vernal equinox (beginning of spring) and autumnal equinox (beginning of fall), the Sun appears to be directly over the equator, and the lengths of day and the night are equal except at the poles where the Sun circles around the horizon. Have students research when equinoxes occur.

What are some notable signs of the seasons changing? [Flowers blooming, leaves changing color, types of clothing worn, types of food eaten, birds migrating, precipitation changes, etc.].

Demonstrate the orbital path of the Earth around the Sun and the seasonal changes. Use a hula hoop to represent Earth's orbital path. Divide the inside area of the hula hoop into four quadrants and label them summer (upper right), autumn (upper left), winter (lower left), and spring (lower right). Using a Styrofoam(TM) ball mounted on a pencil (with the eraser end indicating "north" and an applied label or tactile sticker indicating "North America," rotate Earth (tilted approximately 23 degrees) around the Sun (small bowl or orange) in a counterclockwise motion. Be sure not to change the tilt of Earth as it orbits the Sun. During Earth's orbit, announce when the solstices and equinoxes would occur. At each point, note when North America would be receiving the most direct sunlight (summer) or the least sunlight (winter). If desired (and with adult supervision), replace the bowl with a lamp (with the shade removed and securely mounted on a table), and replace the Earth model with a print/tactile world globe.

Is the Earth a true sphere, that is, a round body whose surface is at all points equidistant from the center? Using a soft-foam stress ball, demonstrate to students how Earth bulges out at the equator and is slightly flattened at the poles. This shape is the result of Earth's rapid spin. Affix a piece of graphic art tape around the center of the ball to represent the equator and squeeze "Earth" from top (North Pole) to bottom (South Pole).

Earth has four separate layers: the inner core, outer core, mantle, and outer crust. Have students (in small groups) design a model of the Earth's layers. For example, an ice cream cone can be used to represent a section extracted from Earth; a Hershey's Kiss® positioned at the bottom of the cone represents the solid inner core; a scoop of chocolate pudding represents the liquid outer core; chocolate chip ice cream represents the rocky mantle; and a layer of candy sprinkles represents the outer rocky crust. The created model can be built from materials chosen by the students.

Food Allergy Alert: Be sure check for allergies before offering nuts or any other foods to the student you are working with or others with whom you might wish to share. Allergies can be life-threatening.

Divide students into small groups and have each research and report on the following:

   *   Earth's Surface Features-canyons, caves, mountains, coastline, oceans, etc.

   *   Earth's Atmosphere-climate, weather, wind, clouds, etc.

   *   Earth's Plate Tectonics

   *   Erosion and Weathering of Earth

Math Connection:

Have students research and report on special geographical features of Earth by their size. For example:

   *   What is the largest volcano?

   *   What is the longest river?

   *   What is the largest canyon?

   *   What is the largest desert?

   *   What is the largest island?

   *   What is the highest mountain?

Rank the four terrestrial planets by size (largest to smallest):

Terrestrial

Planet    Diameter     Diameter
          (Miles)      (Kilometers)

Earth     7,926        12,756

Venus     7,521        12,104

Mars      4,220        6,791

Mercury   3,032        4,879

Make a pie chart showing Earth's atmospheric composition.

Explain an Astronomical Unit (AU) of measurement. [It is the average distance between the Sun and Earth-about 93 million miles (150,000 million kilometers). This unit of measurement is used to indicate distances within the Solar System.] Research and chart the Astronomical Unit for each planet. Students can use APH's Planet Ranking by Distance from the Sun Worksheet to record their findings.

Planet   Average AU Distance from the Sun

Mercury    .4

Venus      .7

Earth       1

Mars      1.5

Jupiter   5.2

Saturn    9.5

Uranus    19.2

Neptune   30.06

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Earth: "Largest Terrestrial Planet," "Ocean Planet," "Home Planet," "Life-Supporting Planet," "Blue and White Marble," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Earth is the only planet not named after Greek or Roman mythology. Its name means "ground."

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Earth.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Earth.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Earth's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Earth's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Earth's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Earth in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

In 1968, Apollo 8 astronauts took photographs of the Earth during their journey to and from the Moon.

Earth's polar ice caps contain over 70% of the planet's fresh water. Earth's polar caps are shrinking.

Our Sun is actually closer to the Earth during Northern Hemisphere's winter than during Northern Hemisphere's summer.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Earth:

*   Windows to the Universe: Earth
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/earth/earth.html

*   SPACE.com: About Planet Earth
http://www.space.com/earth/

*   World Book at NASA: Earth
http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/earth_worldbook.html

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Earth
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/earth.html


Activity 6: MARS-The Red Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Mars and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Deimos, Mars, Olympus Mons, Phobos, rover, terrestrial planet, Valles Marineris

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: MARS

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 1-1/4" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (red) and paintbrush

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Mars" affixed to a toothpick

Other materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Uncooked eggs (one for each small group of students)

   *   Assortment of materials (e.g., packing peanuts or bubblewrap, Styrofoam(TM), sand, boxes, plastic bags, etc.)

   *   Newspaper or plastic (to cover floor where eggs are dropped)

Procedure:

Review unique features of Mars with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Mars include:

   *   Fourth planet from the Sun.

   *   One of the four terrestrial planets.

   *   Planet most like Earth, except much smaller.

   *   Has a central core made of iron.

   *   Has two moons named Phobos and Deimos, which are among the smallest in the Solar System.

   *   It is rocky, cold, and apparently lifeless.

   *   Has enormous volcanoes and valleys.

   *   Huge dust storms periodically encompass the whole planet.

Make a model of the planet Mars by using a 1-1/4" Styrofoam(TM) ball and painting it red. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Mars" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Mars that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Mars.

Extension Activities:

Compare and contrast the features of Mars and Earth. For example:

Similarities:

   *   Both have a central iron core.

   *   Both have four seasons.

   *   Both have polar ice caps.

   *   Both have similar rotation period lengths, with Mars' being only 37 minutes longer than Earth's.

   *   Both have similar landforms such as volcanoes, canyons, valleys, and channels.

   *   Both have the same amount of landmass.

Differences:

   *   Mars' rock layer is thicker than Earth's.

   *   Mars' atmosphere is thinner than Earth's.

   *   Mars is half the diameter of Earth.

   *   Mars is bitterly cold with an average temperature of -81°F (-62°C).

   *   Mars is reddish in color.

   *   Ninety-five percent of Mars' atmosphere is carbon dioxide.

   *   Mars' seasons last twice as long as Earth's.

Exploration of Mars' surface is conducted with the use of remote-controlled robotic rovers. To land softly on Mars' surface, these rovers are protected by giant air bags during landing. Have students work in small groups to design a "rover" (as represented by a raw egg) that will not crack when dropped on the floor. How can they protect it without altering the egg itself? Provide them with possible protective material (e.g., bubble wrap, Styrofoam(TM), plastic bags, tape, etc.). For more information and images about Mars' rover missions, visit NASA's "Mars Exploration Rover Mission" Website: http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov/home/index.html

Food Allergy Alert: Be sure check for allergies before offering nuts or any other foods to the student you are working with or others with whom you might wish to share. Allergies can be life-threatening.

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Mars. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 38 pounds on Mars.

Have students create math problems that compare Mars to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Earth's diameter than Mars'?

7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) - 4,220 miles (6,791 kilometers) = ?

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Mars?

142 million miles (228 million kilometers) - 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) = ?

If you lived on Mars for 11 of its years, how many Earth years would you have spent?

1 Martian year = 687 Earth days

1 Earth year = 365 Earth days

Answer: 20.7 Earth years

Research the height and diameter of Mars' largest volcano, Olympus Mons. How does its size compare to Earth's largest volcano, Mauna Loa?

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Mars: "Red Planet," "Cold Desert," "Dust Storm Planet," "Earth's Outer Neighbor," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Iron oxide (or rust) in Mars' soil gives the planet a reddish color. Many ancient civilizations associated the color with the blood of battle, so they named the planet after the Roman god of war.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Mars.

Have students write a real estate ad or travel brochure about Mars: "Mars for Sale!" or "Visit Mars." Write a catchy phrase that highlights some interesting features about Mars. For example:

"Need some extra time? Add 37 minutes to your day."

"Tour Olympus Mons, the Solar System's largest volcano!"

"Great terrain for extreme sports!"

Discuss the fascination with the planet Mars as reflected in film and fiction (e.g., The War of the Worlds by H.G. Wells).

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Mars.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Mars' relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Mars' relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Mars' symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Mars in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

In 1965, Mariner 4 was the first spacecraft to visit Mars.

Remote-controlled robotic rovers from Earth-Spirit and Opportunity-found evidence that water once flowed on Mars.

In 2005, NASA launched the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE), a camera flying aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Over its lifetime, HiRISE will take thousands of photographs of Mars' surface. Read more at http://marsoweb.nas.nasa.gov/HiRISE/

Valles Marineris is a grand canyon that runs across one-fourth of Mars' surface-about the distance between New York and Los Angeles.

Mars' two moons-Phobos and Deimos-are really asteroids that were captured by Mars' gravity. Their names mean "fear" and "panic," respectively.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Mars:

*   Mars Team Online
http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/mars/background/mars.html

*   NASA's Mars Exploration Program
http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/participate/marsforeducators/

*   NASA's Mars: The Red Planet
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Mars&Display=Kids

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Mars
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/mars-article.html


Activity 7: JUPITER-The Largest Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Jupiter and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Galilean satellites, gas giant, gossamer ring, Great Red Spot, Jovian planet, Jupiter, planetary rings, space probe

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: JUPITER

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 4" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (orange)

   *   (1) red craft foam circle or oval (to represent the Great Red Spot)

   *   Several yarn strips (red, yellow, brown, white) that circle the diameter of Styrofoam(TM) ball (to represent cloud bands).

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Jupiter" affixed to a toothpick

   *   Glue

Procedure:

Review unique features of Jupiter with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Jupiter include:

   *   Largest planet in the Solar System.

   *   Fifth planet from the Sun.

   *   It is a gas giant (Jovian planet) composed of mostly hydrogen and helium.

   *   Has constantly swirling winds that create storms.

   *   It has a small rocky core that is three times hotter than the surface of the Sun.

   *   Rotates on its axis faster than any other planet.

   *   It is the heaviest planet.

   *   Has the strongest magnetic field of all other planets.

   *   Has a thin system of rings.

   *   Its largest storm is called the Great Red Spot.

   *   Sends radio waves strong enough to be detected by radio telescopes on Earth.

   *   Has 63 known moons.

Discuss Jupiter's colorful cloud bands. The light bands are called "zones," and the dark bands are called "belts." These bands circle the planet parallel to Jupiter's equator.

Make a model of the planet Jupiter by using a 4-inch Styrofoam(TM) ball. Paint it orange, and then once dry, glue yarn strips in various colors (red, yellow, brown, and white) around its diameter to represent Jupiter's cloud bands. Apply a red craft foam circle or oval to its surface to represent the Great Red Spot. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Jupiter" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Jupiter that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Jupiter.

Extension Activities:

Discuss the differences between Jupiter and Earth. For example:

Differences:

   *   A day on Jupiter is much shorter than a day on Earth. Jupiter's day is only 10 Earth hours long.

   *   Jupiter lacks a solid surface.

   *   Jupiter has many moons; Earth has one.

   *   Storms on Jupiter can last over hundreds of years; Earth's storms last only days or weeks.

   *   Jupiter's density is one-fourth that of Earth.

   *   Jupiter's magnetic field is much stronger than Earth's.

Ask students why Jupiter has a stronger magnetic field than Earth. [Because of Jupiter's size and its faster rotation.]

Discuss why Jupiter is not considered a star. [It lacks the mass needed to be a star.] How is it like our Sun? How is it unlike our Sun?

Discuss the different ways in which Jupiter has been studied:

   *   Telescopes on Earth and on board artificial satellites in orbit around Earth

   *   Crewless exploratory craft/space probes

Discuss the planetary rings of Jupiter. The ring system of Jupiter is very thin and made up mostly of microscopic dust particles and fragments of rocks. It is composed of three major components: the donut-shaped halo (innermost), the flat main ring, and the gossamer ring (outermost ring consisting of three faint rings).

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Jupiter. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 236 pounds if you could stand on Jupiter.

Have students create math problems that compare Jupiter to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Jupiter's diameter than Earth's?

88,846 (142,984 kilometers) - 7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) = ?

[Jupiter is more than 11 times larger in diameter than Earth!]

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Jupiter's?

484 million miles (779 million kilometers) - 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) = ?

[Earth is 1 AU from the Sun. Jupiter is about 5 AU from the Sun and is therefore five times farther from the Sun than Earth.]

If you lived on Jupiter for one of its years, how many Earth years would you have spent?

1 year on Jupiter = 11.9 Earth years

Answer: Nearly 12 Earth years

How much greater is Jupiter's mass when compared to Earth's?

[318 times]

How much larger is the diameter of Jupiter's Great Red Spot than Earth?

[At its widest diameter, this hurricane-like storm is about three times Earth's diameter.]

The Galilean satellites are the four largest moons of Jupiter. Research the names of these moons and list them in order by diameter from largest to smallest.

Ganymede-3,273 miles (5,268 kilometers)

Callisto-2,986 miles (4,805 kilometers)

Io-2,264 miles (3,643 kilometers)

Europa-1,945 miles (3,130 kilometers)

Which of these moons is said to have its own magnetic field and is the largest in the Solar System? [Ganymede]

Which of these moons is the most volcanically active body in our Solar System? [Io]

Which of these moons is the third largest in our Solar System? [Callisto]

Which of these moons has a surface composed mostly of ice? [Europa]

For a full list of Jupiter's moons and their names visit http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Display=Moons&Object=Jupiter

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Jupiter: "Largest Planet," "Largest Gas Giant," "Home of the Great Red Spot," "Fifth Planet from the Sun," "The Striped Planet," "Heaviest Planet," "Huge Magnet," "Failed Star," "Fastest Rotating Planet," "King of the Planets," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. As the largest planet, Jupiter was named after the Roman's supreme god.

Have the students create some phrases that would never be said by someone visiting Jupiter (if it were possible): For example:

"Look at all these rocks!"

"This is a really tiny planet."

"I wish there were more moons than just these four."

"There's not a storm in sight."

Have students pretend to have traveled to Jupiter and write a journal entry of their findings (based on research findings located in books and/or on the Internet).

Have students make a timeline of space probes (e.g., Pioneer 10, Voyage 2, Galileo) sent to study Jupiter and report related findings of each.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Jupiter.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Jupiter.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Jupiter's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Jupiter's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Jupiter's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Jupiter in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

In 1610, Galileo Galilei discovered Jupiter's four largest moons.

In 1994, pieces of a small comet called Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into Jupiter.

In 2009, a comet hit Jupiter leaving a "black eye" the size of the Pacific Ocean.

The Galileo spacecraft orbited Jupiter between 1995 and 2003.

In 2008, NASA announced plans to embark on a 20-year project to send a spacecraft to Jupiter's ice-covered moon, Europa. Read more at http://www.space.com/businesstechnology/081127-am-europa-ejsm.html

Visit the following Websites for more information about Jupiter:

*   Science Daily: Jupiter News
http://www.sciencedaily.com/news/space_time/jupiter/

*   Space.com: All About Jupiter
http://www.space.com/jupiter/

*   Welcome to the Planets: Jupiter
http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/choices/jupiter1.htm

*   Exploring the Jupiter System
http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Jupiter/JupiterPlanet.html

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Jupiter
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/jupiter-article.html


Activity 8: SATURN-The Ringed Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Saturn and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Cassini Division, gas giant, Jovian planet, planetary rings, Saturn, shepherd moons, Titan

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: SATURN

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 3" Styrofoam(TM) ball [Caution: The teacher should cut the ball in half, not the student(s).]

   *   Acrylic paint (yellow)

   *   Unused CD

   *   Glitter (variety of colors)

   *   Glue

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Saturn" affixed to a toothpick

Procedure:

Review unique features of Saturn with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Saturn include:

   *   Sixth planet from the Sun.

   *   Second largest planet.

   *   Has the brightest rings of all the gas giants (Jovian planets).

   *   Has thousands of rings made up of ice and rock particles.

   *   Made up mostly of hydrogen and helium.

   *   Has no solid surface.

   *   Its rotation is very fast-just under 11 Earth hours.

   *   Has the lowest density of any planet in the Solar System; it would float in water.

   *   Its largest moon is Titan.

Make a model of the planet Saturn by using a 3-inch Styrofoam(TM) ball and painting it yellow. Once the paint is dry, cut the ball in half [to be done by the teacher!] and glue each half to either side of an unused CD. [Note: The two halves of the ball can be joined by a few toothpicks inserted through the CD's center opening.] Then apply a thin layer of glue to one side of the CD and sprinkle with "rings" of glitter in various colors; once dry, repeat rings on opposite side. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Saturn" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Saturn that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Saturn.

Extension Activities:

Discuss the similarities and differences between Jupiter and Saturn. For example:

Similarities:

   *   Both are gas giants.

   *   The atmospheres of both are composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.

   *   Both have a ring system.

   *   Both have rocky core.

   *   Both lack a solid surface.

   *   Both rotate rapidly.

Differences:

   *   Saturn is farther from the Sun than Jupiter.

   *   Saturn is colder than Jupiter.

   *   Saturn has a prominent ring system; Jupiter has a thin ring system.

   *   Jupiter's rings consist mostly of fine dust particles; Saturn's rings consist mostly of icy particles.

   *   The banded clouds of Saturn's atmosphere are not as colorful as Jupiter's.

   *   Saturn's magnetic field is weaker than that of Jupiter's.

   *   Saturn has less density than Jupiter.

Discuss how Saturn is similar to Earth. [Each is tilted on its axis at a similar angle relative to the Sun-Saturn is tilted 27 degrees and Earth is tilted 23 degrees.]

Study Saturn's planetary ring system by having students research the answers to the following questions:

How many rings does Saturn have?

What is the composition of Saturn's rings?

How many miles/kilometers across are Saturn's rings?

How thick are Saturn's rings?

How do Saturn's rings appear from Earth?

Can Saturn's rings be seen without a telescope?

In what direction do the rings orbit Saturn?

Do all the rings orbit at the same speed?

Are the gaps (divisions) between Saturn's rings all the same width?

Can a spacecraft land on Saturn's rings?

How are Saturn's rings named?

What is the Cassini Division? How wide is it?

Where are Saturn's moons located within the ring system?

What are shepherd moons and what effect do they have on the rings?

What are the names of some of the shepherd moons?

For more information about each of Saturn's rings visit http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/saturn/rings.html

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Saturn. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 106 pounds if you could stand on Saturn.

Have students create math problems that compare Saturn to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Saturn's diameter than Earth's?

74,897 miles (120,536 kilometers) - 7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) = ?

How many times farther is Saturn from the Sun than Earth?

Saturn's average distance from the Sun is 890 million miles (1.4 billion kilometers).

Earth's average distance from the Sun is 93 million miles (150 million kilometers).

Answer: 9.5 times farther

If you lived on Saturn for three of its years, how many Earth years would you have spent?

1 year on Saturn = 29.5 Earth years

Answer: Nearly 90 Earth years!

Saturn has the second largest moon in the Solar System-Titan. How much smaller is Titan than the largest moon in the Solar System, Jupiter's Ganymede? How much larger is Titan than Earth's Moon?

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Saturn: "Prominent Ringed Planet," "Low Density Planet," "Could-Float-On-Water Planet," "Most Beautiful Planet," "Lord of the Rings," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture who taught people how to farm. The day of the week, Saturday, is named after him as well.

Research the names of Saturn's many moons (e.g., Dione, Rhea, Hyperion, Phoebe, etc.). For a complete list visit http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Saturn&Display=Facts

Have students make a timeline of spacecraft visits (e.g., Pioneer 11, Voyager 1 & 2, Cassini-Huygens) to Saturn and significant findings of each.

Have students create reminders about Saturn's rings using the seven alphabet letters that correspond to each of the planet's rings. For example:

A = Alphabetically named
B = Billions of particles of ice and rock
C = Cassini mission is studying Saturn's rings
D = Divisions occur between the rings
E = Enormous size
F = Faint rings are mixed in with more prominent rings.
G = Galileo first discovered Saturn's rings

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Saturn.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Saturn.

Visual Adaptation:

Use the constructed model of Saturn to demonstrate the various views of Saturn's rings from Earth. Have the student tactually trace the model from its edge-on view, feeling only the edge of the CD. Tilt the model so that the rings (drawn on the CD) can be more fully explored. Explain that there are times during Saturn's orbit that its rings appear fully extended from Earth's perspective (through a telescope) and other times when the rings appear just as a very thin line, almost disappearing from view. The rings appear the widest when Saturn's northern hemisphere is experiencing summer.

Review Saturn's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Saturn's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Saturn's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Saturn in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

Titan, Saturn's largest moon, has rivers and lakes of liquid methane. Titan is larger than the planet Mercury.

The Cassini spacecraft arrived at Saturn in 2004 to study the planet's rings and moons more closely. It carried a probe called Huygens that was parachuted into the atmosphere of Titan.

Because of the tilt of Saturn and thinness of its rings, every 14 years the rings look like they have disappeared when viewed with a telescope on Earth.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Saturn:

*   Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum: Exploring the Planets: Saturn
http://www.nasm.si.edu/research/ceps/etp/saturn/

*   NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory: California Institute of Technology: Cassini Equinox Mission
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/

*   Exploring Saturn
http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Saturn/SaturnMoonsRings.html

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Saturn
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/saturn-article.html


Activity 9: URANUS-The Tilted Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Uranus and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Epsilon ring, gas giant, ice giant, Jovian planet, retrograde rotation, ring system, shepherd moons, Uranus

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: URANUS

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 2-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (blue-green)

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Uranus" affixed to a toothpick

Other Materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   (1) Styrofoam(TM) ball (about 2-inches in diameter)

   *   (1) pencil with eraser end

   *   Graphic art tape-black (available from APH)

   *   Acrylic paint (any color that contrasts against black)

   *   An orange

Procedure:

Review unique features of Uranus with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Uranus include:

   *   Seventh planet from the Sun.

   *   One of the gas giants (Jovian planets), along with Saturn, Jupiter, and Neptune.

   *   Considered an ice giant because of the presence of ice and frozen gases.

   *   Lacks a solid surface.

   *   Its atmosphere is composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.

   *   Its blue-green color is the result of methane in its atmosphere.

   *   Its rotation axis is nearly parallel with its plane of orbit, appearing tipped over compared to other planets' orientation.

   *   Has a rocky core about the size of Earth.

   *   Has a strong magnetic field.

   *   Its 11 rings are dark and narrow.

   *   Has at least 27 moons.

   *   First planet discovered in modern times.

Make a model of the planet Uranus by using a 2-1/2" Styrofoam(TM) ball and painting it blue-green. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Uranus" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Uranus that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Uranus.

Extension Activities:

Discuss the possible cause for Uranus's unique orientation. [Astronomers think Uranus collided with another planet-size body at some point in the past and was knocked on its side.]

Research the axis tilt of other planets. How does Uranus's compare? [While most planets' axes tilt less than 30 degrees, Uranus's axis tilts 98 degrees (or 82 degrees if taken to be retrograde). As a result, Uranus's poles receive more sunlight during the planet's year than its equator. Unlike other planets' equators, Uranus's equator extends top to bottom instead of side to side. Each pole experiences 42 years of continuous sunlight and 42 years of continuous darkness.]

Have students research and discuss the ring system of Uranus. The 11 rings of Uranus are composed of icy boulders and large amounts of dust. The rings are very faint and dark as compared to Saturn's. Two shepherd moons, Cordelia and Ophelia, keep Uranus's outermost ring (the Epsilon ring) from dispersing into space. The Epsilon ring is the brightest of Uranus's rings. The rings of Uranus are perpendicular to the planet's orbital path around the Sun.

Compare Uranus's direction of rotation to that of Earth and Venus:

Teacher preparation: Using a Styrofoam(TM) ball (about 2-inches in diameter), make a model of a planet. Paint the ball a color that contrasts against black. Wrap a strip of black graphic art tape around the ball to represent the equator. Then insert a pencil into the Styrofoam(TM) ball in a direction perpendicular to the equator; the eraser end will represent the North Pole. Ask the student to model the rotation of each of the three planets as they orbit the Sun (an orange).

   *   Earth: Hold the point of the pencil against the table with the eraser pointing North (upward), but slightly tilted to the left roughly 23 degrees. Then rotate the planet around its own axis in a counterclockwise motion as it orbits the Sun.

   *   Venus: Holding the pencil perpendicular to the table top, rotate the planet around its own axis in a clockwise motion as it orbits the Sun. Explain that this clockwise motion is opposite (retrograde, or east-to-west direction) to that of Earth and other planets, except Uranus.

   *   Uranus: Tilt the planet so that the pencil is nearly parallel with the table top and the equator is perpendicular to the table top. Then roll the planet over and over as it orbits the Sun. Like Venus, Uranus has a retrograde rotation.

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Uranus. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 90 pounds if you could stand on Uranus.

Have students create math problems that compare Uranus to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Uranus' diameter than Earth's?

31,763 miles (51,118 kilometers) - 7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) = ?

[Uranus's diameter is over four times that of Earth.]

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Uranus's?

1.8 billion miles (2.9 billion kilometers) - 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) = ?

[Earth is 1 AU from the Sun. Uranus is about 20 AU from the Sun and is therefore 20 times farther from the Sun than Earth.]

If you lived on Uranus for one of its years, how many Earth days would you have spent?

1 year on Uranus = 84 Earth years

Answer: Over 30,000 days!

Make a pie chart illustrating the content of Uranus' atmosphere:

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Uranus: "Blue-Green Planet," "Tipped Over Planet," "The Sideways Planet," "Neptune's Icy Twin," "The Rolling Planet," "Extreme Season Planet," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Originally the planet was named Georgium Sidus (meaning Georgian Planet) by its discoverer William Herschel in honor of England's King George III. It was sometimes called "Herschel," but was eventually named after classical mythology like other planets. Uranus was god of the heavens in Greek mythology.

Uranus's moons are named after characters in the stories of William Shakespeare and Alexander Pope. Research the names of some of these moons [Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon]. For a complete list of Uranus's moons and when they were discovered, visit http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Uranus/UranusMoons.html

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Uranus.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Uranus.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Uranus's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Uranus's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Uranus's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Uranus in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

Uranus was discovered by accident by William Herschel in 1781. It was the first planet discovered with the aid of a telescope.

Uranus was first visited in 1986 by the NASA spacecraft, Voyager 2.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Uranus:

*   NASA Solar System Exploration: Uranus
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Uranus

*   Faraway Mystery Planet Uranus
http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Uranus/Uranus.html

*   Planet Uranus
http://planeturanus.net/

*   SPACE.com: All About Planet Uranus
http://www.space.com/uranus/

*   National Geographic: Science and Space: Uranus
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/uranus-article.html

*   SPACE.com: Virtual Space Tour
http://www.space.com/php/popup/virtualspacetour/noad_astropedia.php

[Note: This site is especially helpful for obtaining audio information about each planet.]


Activity 10: NEPTUNE-The Outermost Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of the planet Neptune and build a model of the planet.

Vocabulary:

Aphelion, eccentric orbit, elliptical orbit, gas giant, ice giant, Jovian planet, Neptune, perihelion, Pluto, ring arcs, ring system, shepherd moons

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: NEPTUNE

   *   Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay

   *   Planetary Orbits Overlay

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

   *   Planet Fact Worksheet [WS-1]

Materials for building planet model:

   *   (1) 2" Styrofoam(TM) ball

   *   Acrylic paint (blue)

   *   Print and/or braille label of "Neptune" affixed to a toothpick

Other Materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Available collage materials, drawing board, hula hoop, table tennis ball, etc., to build representations of different types of orbits [see "Extension Activities" section for suggestions]

Procedure:

Review unique features of Neptune with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this planet.

Some features and characteristics of Neptune include:

   *   Eighth planet from the Sun.

   *   Has a small central core made of up melted rock.

   *   It is one of the gas giants (Jovian planets).

   *   Methane in its atmosphere gives it a very blue appearance-bluer than Uranus.

   *   It is considered an ice giant like Uranus.

   *   Its largest moon is Triton.

   *   It is surrounded by thick layers of rapidly swirling clouds.

   *   It has the strongest winds in the Solar System.

   *   A large storm called the Great Dark Spot, first detected in 1989, has since disappeared from Neptune's atmosphere.

   *   Cannot be seen without a telescope.

   *   First planet located through mathematical predictions.

Make a model of the planet Neptune by using a 2-inch Styrofoam(TM) ball and painting it a deep blue-bluer than that used for the model of Uranus. Affix a print and/or braille label of "Neptune" to a toothpick and insert it into the model. Make at least one model of Neptune that can be used to eventually build an entire Solar System for a classroom display. If enough materials are available, each student (or pairs of students) can build a model of Neptune.

Extension Activities:

Compare and contrast Neptune and Uranus.

Similarities:

   *   Both are similar in size.

   *   Both have a similar atmospheric composition.

   *   Both lack a solid surface.

   *   Both are ice giants.

   *   Both have a thin ring system.

   *   Both of their moons are made mostly of ice.

Differences:

   *   Neptune emits heat from its interior.

   *   Neptune has stronger winds.

   *   Neptune has fewer moons.

   *   Neptune's axis tilt (only 28-degrees) is not as extreme.

   *   Neptune's seasonal changes are not as dramatic.

Have students research and discuss the planetary ring system of Neptune. At least five rings orbit around Neptune as discovered by the Voyager 2 probe in 1989. Shepherd moons have been found orbiting within the planet's rings; their gravity keeps the rings in place. Neptune's outermost ring (named "Adams") contains prominent ring arcs, or crescent-shaped segments, which are brighter and denser than other parts of the ring.

About every 248 years, the dwarf planet Pluto moves inside Neptune's orbit for approximately 20 years. When Pluto was considered a planet, it periodically swapped status with Neptune as "The Farthest Planet from the Sun." Comparing the orbits of Neptune and Pluto allows a good comparison between nearly regular (or circular) orbits to eccentric or elliptical ("stretched out") orbits. Note that when an object (e.g., planet) is in an elliptical orbit around another larger object, the larger object is not at the center of the ellipse.

The difference between Neptune's distance to the Sun at perihelion [place in planet's orbit where it is closest to the Sun] and aphelion [place in planet's orbit where it is farthest from the Sun] is slight. Its perihelion is 2.7 billion miles (4.4 billion kilometers) and its aphelion is 2.8 billion miles (4.5 billion kilometers).

Nearly circular orbit (like Neptune's):

The difference between Pluto's distance to the Sun at perihelion and aphelion is great-2.7 billion miles (4.4 billion kilometers) versus 4.6 million miles (7.4 billion kilometers), respectively.

Eccentric orbit (like Pluto's):

Have students' draw or construct tactile/visual representations of both types of orbits. Possibilities include models built with collage materials (yarn for orbit, buttons for planets, etc.), WikkiStix® pictures, the Draftsman, and other available materials. A hula hoop can be used to assess a student's knowledge of the position of the Sun (an orange), the planet's orbit (represented by the hoop itself), the planet's movement around the Sun (demonstrated with a table tennis ball moved around the hoop by the student), and the location of the perihelion and aphelion (print and/or braille labels taped to the hoop).

Math Connection:

Calculate your weight on the planet Neptune. For example, if you weigh 100 pounds on Earth, you would weigh about 112 pounds if you could stand on Neptune.

Have students create math problems that compare Neptune to Earth or to other planets. For example:

How much larger is Neptune's diameter than Earth's?

30,775 miles (49,528 kilometers) - 7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) = ?

[Neptune's diameter is almost four times that of Earth.]

How does Earth's average distance from the Sun compare to Neptune's?

2.8 billion miles (4.5 billion kilometers) - 93 million miles (150 million kilometers) = ?

[Neptune is over 30 AU farther from the Sun than Earth!]

If you lived on Neptune for one of its years, how many Earth days would you have spent?

1 year on Neptune = 165 Earth years

Answer: Over 60,000 days!

How does Triton's diameter compare to our own Moon's diameter? [It is about three-quarters the size of our Moon.]

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Neptune: "Uranus's Icy Twin," "Farthest Planet," "Former Home of the Great Dark Spot," "The Windy Planet," "The Smallest Gas Giant," "Pluto's Neighbor," etc.

Discuss the origins of the planet's name. Neptune is named after the Roman god of the sea.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Neptune.

Ask each student to complete a Planet Fact Worksheet for Neptune.

Visual Adaptation:

Review Neptune's relative distance from the Sun using the Relative Distances of the Planets Display.

Review Neptune's relative size compared to other planets using the Relative Sizes of the Planets Overlay.

Draw a tactile image of Neptune's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display and the Planetary Orbits Overlay to review the orbital pattern of Neptune in relationship to the Sun and other planets.

Science Tidbit:

Triton, one of Neptune's moons, is the only moon in the Solar System that orbits its planet in the opposite direction from the way the planet itself rotates.

The Voyager 2 spacecraft sent back pictures of nitrogen geysers erupting on Triton's surface.

In 1994, the Hubble Space Telescope revealed that the Great Dark Spot, first observed by Voyager 2 in 1989, had disappeared.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Neptune:

   *   World Book at NASA: Neptune http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/neptune_worldbook.html

   *   NASA Solar System Exploration: Neptune http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Neptune

   *   Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum: Exploring the Planets: The Rings of Neptune http://www.nasm.si.edu/CEPS/ETP/neptune/nept_rings.html

   *   National Geographic: Science and Space: Neptune http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/neptune-article.html


Activity 11: PLUTO-The Dwarf Planet


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of Pluto and other dwarf planets.

Vocabulary:

Ceres, Charon, dwarf planet, Eris, Hydra, International Astronomical Union, Kuiper Belt, Nix, Pluto, plutoid, trans-Neptunian Object

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Quick Fact Card: PLUTO

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

Procedure:

Review unique features of Pluto with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about this dwarf planet.

Some features and characteristics of Pluto include:

   *   Once considered the ninth planet, Pluto was re-classified as a dwarf planet in 2006.

   *   It was discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh, an American astronomer.

   *   It is located in the Kuiper Belt, beyond Neptune.

   *   It takes 248 Earth years to go around the Sun.

   *   It has a long elliptical orbit.

   *   It has three moons-Charon, Nix, and Hydra.

   *   It is made up of ice and rock.

   *   Its surface has a layer of frozen methane, nitrogen, and carbon monoxide.

   *   It is surrounded by a thin atmosphere.

Review the definition of a true planet:

  1.   It is an object that orbits the Sun (a star).

  2.   It is large enough to form a spherical (round) shape due to the force of its own gravity.

  3.   It dominates the neighborhood around its orbit.

Why does Pluto not qualify as a true planet? [It does not dominate its neighborhood. It fails to clear its orbit of asteroids, comets, and other debris as it orbits the Sun.]

Stage a debate session between two groups of students about whether Pluto should be classified as a true planet or a dwarf planet. One group can pretend to be the International Astronomical Union (IAU) who downsized Pluto to a dwarf planet.

Extension Activities:

Research the names and locations of some other dwarf planets:

   *   Ceres lies between Mars and Jupiter.

   *   Eris orbits the Sun on the outer edge of the Solar System, beyond Neptune. Eris and Pluto are each considered a trans-Neptunian Object (TNO).

What are plutoids? [Dwarf planets that are farther from the Sun than Neptune. Therefore, Ceres is a dwarf planet, but not a plutoid.]

Review the location and content of the Kuiper Belt. [It is a disk-shaped region that extends beyond Neptune and is home of mostly rock-ice objects, which when dislodged, fall towards the Sun becoming short-period comets.]

Learn more about the International Astronomical Union. Who belongs to this group? [This group includes professional astronomers from all over the world.] What does this group do? [The IAU defines standards for use in astronomy and determines names for objects in the Solar System.] For more information, visit http://www.iau.org/about/

Math Connection:

How much smaller is Pluto's diameter than Earth's?

7,926 miles (12,756 kilometers) - 1,429 miles (2,300 kilometers) = ?

[Earth is about five and half times as large.]

[Pluto is smaller than the Earth's Moon!]

Research and compare Pluto's diameter to other dwarf planets.

Dwarf

Planet   Diameter      Diameter   
         (Miles)       (Kilometers)
Eris     1,500         2,400   

Plut -   1,429         2,300

Ceres    597           960

Ceres, the largest asteroid, is now classified as a dwarf planet. Research the following:

To which U.S. state is Ceres's size comparable? [Texas]

How does this size compare to Earth's Moon? [One-quarter the Moon's size.]

How long does it take for Ceres to orbit the Sun once? [Almost five Earth years.]

Language Connection:

Have the students create a list of nicknames to help them remember the features of Pluto: "Former Ninth Planet," "Snowball," "Kuiper Belt Resident," "Demoted Planet," etc.

Discuss the origins of Pluto's name. Pluto is named after the Roman god of the underworld and the Greek god Hades.

Have students write a newspaper article announcing Pluto's re-classification as a dwarf planet.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about Pluto.

Visual Adaptation:

Draw a tactile image of Pluto's symbol using WikkiStix®, Draftsman, or Picture Maker.

Use Our Solar System Display, as well as the Relative Distances of the Planets Overlay, to approximate the general location of the Pluto, Ceres, Eris, and the Kuiper Belt.

Science Tidbit:

The eccentric orbit of Pluto sometimes brings Pluto closer to the Sun than Neptune every 20 years out of its 248-year orbit.

Unlike Earth's atmospheric temperatures, Pluto's temperatures rise, instead of drop, with altitude.

The spacecraft New Horizons, launched in 2006, will fly close to Pluto and its three moons in 2015. It will be the first spacecraft to journey into the Kuiper Belt region.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Pluto:

   *   New Horizons: NASA's Pluto-Kuiper Belt Mission http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/

   *   National Geographic News: Pluto Not a Planet, Astronomers Rule http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/08/060824-pluto-planet.html

   *   NASA: Solar System Exploration: Pluto http://solarsystem.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Pluto&Display=Overview


Activity 12: Earth's Moon


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of Earth's Moon, particularly its various phases as viewed from Earth.

Vocabulary:

Crater, crescent moon, Earth, first quarter moon, full moon, gibbous moon, gravity, last (third) quarter moon, maria, Moon, new moon, orbit, phases, Sun, waning, waxing

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Phases of the Moon Overlay

   *   Moon Phases (small overlay cards)

   *   Quick Fact Card: MOON

Materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Poster board

   *   Black crayon/marker, textured paper, or craft foam

Procedure:

Ask students what they might already know about Earth's Moon.

   *   It is the only natural satellite of the planet Earth.

   *   It is about one-fourth the diameter of Earth.

   *   It has no atmosphere.

   *   It has no light of its own, but reflects the Sun's light.

   *   Its gravity causes ocean tides on Earth.

   *   Most of its surface is covered with mountains and craters.

   *   It has a small hot core and a thick mantle.

   *   It has been walked on by astronauts.

   *   It is roughly the same age as the Earth.

   *   Has far less gravity than Earth.

   *   It is visible from Earth during the day and night.

Have students research and discuss the latest theory regarding the origins of the Moon. [According to the "Impact Theory," the Moon formed from the debris created when a young Earth was struck billions of years ago by another celestial object the size of Mars.]

Discuss why the same side of the Moon always faces the Earth. [Because a day on the Moon, one rotation, is the same length as its revolution around the Earth, and in the same direction.]

Why do visible phases of the Moon from Earth's perspective occur? [It takes the Moon about 29.5 days, a little over four weeks, to orbit the Earth. When the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth, the Sun illuminates the far side, making an invisible New Moon. About two weeks later, the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth and it appears as a Full Moon. The lunar cycle is about 29.5 days, from New Moon to New Moon.]

Review the eight recognized phases of the Moon:

New Moon, also called the "Dark Moon," occurs when the Moon does not appear illuminated from Earth's perspective. The Moon is not visible at this phase (except during a solar eclipse).

Waxing Crescent is the phase when the Moon appears to be partly, but less than one-half, illuminated by the Sun. The part of the Moon's disk that is illuminated is growing.

First Quarter Moon is when one-half of the Moon appears to be illuminated by the Sun. The illuminated part of the Moon's disk continues to increase.

Waxing Gibbous is the phase when the Moon appears to be more than one-half illuminated by the Sun. The illuminated part of the Moon's disk continues to increase.

Full Moon is the phase when the Moon appears completely illuminated by the Sun. At this point, the Moon has completed one-half of the lunar cycle.

Waning Gibbous is the phase when the Moon appears to be more than one-half illuminated by the Sun. The illuminated part of the Moon's disk is decreasing.

Last Quarter (or Third Quarter) Moon is the phase when one-half of the Moon appears illuminated by the Sun. However, the side illuminated is opposite that half illuminated during a First Quarter Moon.

Waning Crescent is the phase when the Moon's disk appears to be partly, but less than one-half, illuminated by the Sun. The laminated part of the Moon's disk continues to decrease until it becomes a New Moon again.

Extension Activities:

Have students (in pairs or as a class) keep a "Moon Calendar" that illustrates changes in the Moon's appearance over the course of a month. Draw 29 outline circles on a poster board (in rows and columns to mimic a calendar layout) and label the circles from "Day 1" to "Day 29." On a daily basis, shade the corresponding day's circle to illustrate the portion of the Moon not lighted by the Sun. If observation is not possible due to cloudy conditions, leave the corresponding circle blank. Have students observe developing patterns. As a reference, visit the following Website for an up-to-date calendar of the latest month's moon phases: http://www.moonconnection.com/moon_phases_calendar.phtml Note: Instead of coloring the circles, apply textured paper or cut craft foam shapes to accommodate the tactile reader. Color the inside of all the circles yellow to provide visual contrast against black shaded areas for the low vision reader.

Math Connection:

Have students research basic "Moon" facts involving numbers. For example:

   *   What is the diameter of the Moon? [2,159 miles/3,476 kilometers]

   *   What is the Moon's average distance from the Earth? [239,000 miles/385,000 kilometers]

   *   How long does it take for the Moon to rotate about its own axis? [about 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes]

   *   How long does it take for the Moon to orbit the Earth? [about 27 days, 7 hours, and 43 minutes]

   *   How hot is the Moon's surface? [temperatures during the day can reach 253°F or 123°C]

Language Connection:

Have students research and write a report about one of the following Moon missions, and then share the information with the class:

   *   Lunar Prospector

   *   Apollo Program

   *   Lunar Orbiter

   *   Ranger

   *   Clementine

The smoothest parts of the Moon are called "seas" or "maria" that were formed billions of years ago when lava covered old craters. These darker patches are flat, dry areas of the Moon and are less common on the far side of the Moon. Have students research the names of some of these waterless "seas":

   *   Sea of Rain

   *   Sea of Moisture

   *   Sea of Clouds

   *   Sea of Serenity

   *   Sea of Crisis

   *   Sea of Tranquility

   *   Sea of Vapor

   *   Sea of Nectars

Discuss the meaning behind names for certain types of moons:

A "Harvest Moon" appears in the Northern Hemisphere during the month of September and coincides with the harvesting of crops.

A "Blue Moon" is a rare occurrence when a full moon rises twice in the same month. It happens about every three years, thus the familiar saying "once in a blue moon."

There are many Native American names for Full Moons. For a list go to http://www.moonphases.info/full_moon_names.html

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Phases of the Moon Overlay to review how the Moon changes appearances (from our perspective) as it orbits Earth. Emphasize that half of the Moon's surface is always lit by the Sun, but over a course of about 30 days, we see, from Earth's perspective, varying amounts of the Moon as it is lit by the Sun. In the overlay, the portion of the Moon illuminated by the Sun at each phase is indicated by a dimpled texture; the smooth texture represents the portion of the Moon not visible from Earth at each phase.

Use the small Moon Phase Cards/Overlays to assess the student's understanding of the moon phases. See Appendix A for suggested activities.

Obtain a current braille/print APH InSights Calendar that indicates the occurrences of Full Moons, First Quarter Moons, Last Moons, and New Moons throughout the year.

Science Tidbit:

The Moon is moving slowly away from Earth at the rate of one and a half inches per year.

In the 1990s, NASA's space probes, Lunar Prospector and Clementine, provided data indicating that ice might exist at the Moon's poles.

The Moon's major craters are named after astronomers such as Copernicus, Brahe, and Kepler.

On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon.

The "far side" of the Moon was first seen in photos taken in 1959 by the Soviet spacecraft Luna 3.

In September 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter found evidence of hydrogen on the Moon, perhaps suggesting that there are hidden stores of water in its top layer.

Visit the following Websites for more information about Earth's Moon:

   *   World Book at NASA: Moon

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/moon_worldbook.html

   *   Lunar Science for Kids: Moon Facts

http://lunarscience.arc.nasa.gov/kids/moon_facts

   *   NASA: Solar System Exploration: Missions to the Moon

http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/profile.cfm?Sort=Target&Target=Moon&Era=Past


Activity 13: Solar and Lunar Eclipses


Objective:

Learn about two basic types of eclipses-solar and lunar.

Vocabulary:

Annular eclipse, corona, lunar eclipse, moon, orbit, partial eclipse, path of totality, penumbra, solar eclipse, Sun, total eclipse, umbra

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Solar Eclipse Overlay

   *   Lunar Eclipse Overlay

   *   Cross-Section of the Sun Overlay

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities and Math Connection):

   *   Flashlight

   *   Tennis ball

   *   Table tennis ball

   *   Tactile/print United States map

   *   Tactile world globe

   *   Graphic art tape

   *   Ice cream cone, or cone-shaped paper cup

Procedure:

Discuss the various types of eclipses:

Total Solar Eclipse   Occurs when the New Moon passes directly between the Sun and the Earth, entirely blocking the Sun's light and casting a shadow that directly touches the Earth's surface.

Partial Solar Eclipse   Occurs when the Moon blocks out only a part of the Sun's light and the Moon's shadow passes over a region of the Earth's surface.

Annular Solar Eclipse   Occurs when the Moon is most distant from Earth during its elliptical orbit; it appears smaller and cannot cover all of the Sun. A ring of sunlight can be seen around the disk of the Moon.

Total Lunar Eclipse   Occurs when the entire Moon passes through the shadow of the Earth. At this time, the Sun and Moon are on opposite sides of the Earth, and all three are in a straight line. It is experienced by all observers on the nighttime side of Earth. Lunar eclipses only occur when the Moon is in the Full Moon stage.

Partial Lunar Eclipse   Occurs when only a part of the Moon passes into Earth's shadow.

Caution: Inform students that people should never look directly at the Sun; to do so can cause severe eye damage and/or visual impairment. Note: Viewing a lunar eclipse is safe.

Using the Solar Eclipse Overlay, identify the two parts of the Moon's shadow.

Umbra-The Moon's dark inner shadow. Wherever the umbra falls on the Earth, a total solar eclipse is experienced.

Penumbra-The faint outer region on either side of the Moon's umbra. Wherever the penumbra falls on the Earth, a partial solar eclipse is experienced.

Emphasize that the position of the Moon's shadow on Earth changes as the Moon moves about its orbit.

Using the Lunar Eclipse Overlay, identify the two parts of Earth's shadow.

Umbra-The region where the Earth's shadow blocks all direct sunlight from reaching the Moon.

Penumbra-The region where Earth's shadow blocks part, but not all of the Sun's light from reaching the Moon.

Extension Activities:

Demonstrate a lunar eclipse and solar eclipse using a flashlight (to represent the Sun), a tennis ball (to represent Earth), and a table tennis ball (to represent the Moon). Position the tennis ball on a table about two feet from the table's edge. Then position the table tennis ball about one foot from the table's edge, between the Earth and the Sun. Have one student shine the flashlight on Earth, as another student moves the Moon in orbit around the Earth. During the Moon's orbit, identify when a lunar eclipse occurs and when a solar eclipse occurs.

During a total solar eclipse, the umbra of the Moon's shadow sweeps across the Earth's surface. This track of the Moon's umbral shadow is called the path of totality. Because this path of totality is very narrow (less than 200 miles wide), a total solar eclipse is a rare event as observed from any one spot on Earth. Use a United States tactile/print map to approximate this distance between any two chosen cities. Keep in mind that because the path of totality frequently travels across open seas and remote regions of the world, the chance of experiencing a total solar eclipse is very rare.

Discuss why a lunar eclipse does not happen every month. [Because the Moon's orbit is tilted five degrees, the Moon spends most of the time either above or below the plane of Earth's orbit.]

Math Connection:

Have students research and compile important number facts about solar and lunar eclipses. For example:

   *   What is the maximum duration of a total solar eclipse? [7-½ minutes, but usually lasts about 3 minutes]

   *   What is the typical duration of a total lunar eclipse? [1 hour to 1 hour and 40 minutes]

   *   How often do lunar eclipses occur? [range from 0 to 3 times a year]

   *   How often do total solar eclipses occur? [Once every one to two years. Although rare, it is possible to have two total solar eclipses in a single year.]

Discuss how it is possible that the Moon, which is far smaller than the Sun, is able to hide the Sun from our view during a solar eclipse. [It can cover the Sun because, although it is much smaller than the Sun, it also much closer to Earth. The Sun is about 400 times larger than the Moon, but sometimes during the Moon's orbit, the Moon is about 400 times closer to Earth. This coincidence makes the Moon appear, from Earth's viewpoint, about the same size as the Sun.

Scientists can predict the location of future solar eclipses. Become familiar with predicted solar eclipses (and types) by visiting NASA Eclipse Web Site: Solar Eclipses: Past and Future at http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/solar.html

At this same Website, select a past solar eclipse and review its charted path on the Google Map link. For example, the "path of totality" during the total solar eclipse of July 11, 1991 crossed Hawaii, Mexico, Central America, Colombia, and Brazil. For the tactile reader, plot its path by applying graphic art tape onto a world globe or map.

Language Connection:

Have students create a list of synonyms for the word eclipse, such as conceal, dim, darken, obscure, hide, mask, cover, shade, extinguish, etc.

Visual Adaptation:

When examining the Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse Overlays, note that size and distances between the Earth, Sun, and Moon are not to scale. Highlight textural differences between the umbra (rough, cone-shaped area) and penumbra (smooth triangular areas on either side of the umbra) regions.

During a total solar eclipse, prominences will sometimes flare out from around the darkened outline of the Sun. [Use the Cross-Section of the Sun Overlay to review the location of and looping shape of prominences.]

Demonstrate the "path of totality" concept in the following way: Point the narrow end of an empty ice cream cone toward a world globe. Slowly spin the globe and name aloud the countries and oceans that the end of the cone (or cone-shaped paper cup) is pointing to. This imaginary line that the tip of the cone travels represents the locations on Earth from which people could witness a total solar eclipse. Flip the cone around so that the wide end points toward the spinning globe. The wider end of the cone represents the penumbra, the larger region of the Moon's shadow, which falls upon the Earth's surface allowing more people (a much larger audience) to observe a partial solar eclipse.

The ability to view just a portion of a whole image might be difficult for a tactile reader to understand. Demonstrate this by cutting two circles of the same size from contrasting textured paper (one rough, one smooth) to represent the Moon and the Sun. Position the Sun securely on a table and then have the student place the Moon directly on top of the Sun to represent a total solar eclipse. Ask the student to slide the Moon to one side in small increments noticing that an increasing amount, but a partial amount, of the Sun is touchable. Continue to slide the Moon until all of the Sun can be touched.

Science Tidbit:

Long ago, before it was understood why solar eclipses occurred, the disappearance of the Sun during the daytime caused much fear. Some people believed it was an omen of disaster to come.

It is expected that in about a billion years, the Moon will have drifted so far from Earth that solar eclipses will no longer occur.

It is only during a total solar eclipse that the Sun's corona (outer atmosphere) is visible from Earth.

Visit the following Websites for more information about solar and lunar eclipses:

   *   NASA Eclipse Web Site

http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse.html

   *   National Geographic: Science and Space: Solar Eclipses

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/solar-eclipse-article.html


Activity 14: Stargazers


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features of stars including their classifications and life cycles.

Vocabulary:

Binary star, black hole, blue giant, brown dwarf, double star, Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, luminosity, main sequence star, Milky Way Galaxy, nebula, neutron star, nuclear fusion, pulsar, red dwarf, red giant, star, supergiant, supernova, Universe, variable star, white dwarf, yellow dwarf

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Northern Circumpolar Dome Display

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities and Math Connection):

   *   Different colors and textures of papers, posterboard, and labeling material to build a classroom display of the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram

Procedure:

Ask students what they already know about stars.

   *   There are billions of stars in our Milky Way Galaxy. There are billions of galaxies in the Universe. There are billions upon billions of colorful stars of all sizes and ages in the Universe.

   *   Stars are mostly composed of hydrogen, some helium, and traces of other elements.

   *   Stars come in many different sizes.

   *   Stars come in many different colors.

   *   Stars seem to twinkle when their light passes through Earth's shifting atmosphere.

   *   Stars' energy comes from nuclear fusion as hydrogen is converted to helium.

   *   Stars can be described by their brightness, color, surface temperature, size, and mass.

Explain that a star's color depends on its temperature. Red stars have the coolest temperatures, yellow stars have medium-range temperatures, and blue stars are the hottest.

A star's mass indicates its life span. In general...

   *   Big (massive) stars have short lives and burn no more than 10 million years.

   *   Medium-sized stars (like our Sun) last for about 10 billion years.

   *   Small stars glow faintly and longer than larger stars-perhaps as long as a trillion years.

Discuss specific types of stars:

Main Sequence Star   Most stars within our galaxy, including our Sun, are currently main sequence stars as classified on the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. They vary in size, mass, brightness, temperature, and slightly different composition, yet all are converting hydrogen to helium and thus are releasing large amounts of energy.

Yellow Dwarfs   These young stars are small, main sequence stars with medium temperatures. Our Sun is an example. Near the end of their lives they will become very large, but shrink again leaving behind a cloud of gas called a planetary nebula.

Red Dwarfs   These stars are very small main sequence stars with cooler surface temperatures. Most stars in the Universe are of this type. They burn their fuel very slowly and survive longer than any other kind of star.

Red Giants   These relatively old stars can be 100 times larger than their original size as main sequence stars. A red giant forms during the later stages of a star's evolution as it runs low on hydrogen. The largest red giants are called red supergiants and have diameters 1,000 times larger than the Sun.

Blue Giants   These are very large and very hot stars. These rare stars live a relatively short time compared to other stars.

Supergiants   Largest known of all stars in the Universe. They are very rare. When they die, they become supernovas (catastrophic explosions of huge stars), and eventually black holes (areas of great gravitational pull from which nothing, including light, can escape).

White Dwarfs   These are very small, dense, and extremely hot stars that are about the size of our Earth and with roughly the mass of the Sun. They will eventually lose heat and become cold black dwarfs.

Brown Dwarfs   Stars whose mass is too small to have nuclear fusion. They are also called "failed stars." They emit no light or heat.

Neutron Stars   These very small and dense stars are composed of packed neutrons. Neutron stars can result from supernova explosions.

Pulsars   Neutron stars that are spinning very rapidly.

Double Star   Two stars that appear close to one another in the sky.

Binary Star   A system of two closely spaced stars that orbit each other.

Variable Star   A star that changes in brightness.

Extension Activities:

Create a "human" flowchart illustrating the life cycle of a star. Assign nine students the following roles:

   *   nebula (2)

   *   main sequence star

   *   red giant

   *   white dwarf

   *   black dwarf

   *   supernova

   *   black hole

   *   neutron star

For a visual reference of the life cycle of stars, visit http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/lifecycles/stars.html

Discuss the life span and eventual fate of our Sun. [The Sun is about five billion years old and will stay a steady state star another five billion years until the hydrogen fuel in its core is exhausted. Then hydrogen in its outer layers will begin to fuse and expand to engulf the inner planets.]

Math Connection:

The Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) Diagram is a graph that shows the relationship of a star's temperature to its brightness (luminosity or magnitude). The brighter the star, the hotter it is. Duplicate this graph by making a classroom display (visual and tactile) that shows the temperatures of each star type (red giants, white dwarfs, our Sun, etc.). Students can help in the construction of the graph using various colors of construction paper, tissue paper, or textured paper and print/braille labels.

Note that luminosity increases upward on the vertical axis and temperature decreases to the right on the horizontal axis. Our Sun lies in the middle of that diagonal band. In general, it looks like this:

A large cluster of main sequence stars creates a diagonal band extending from the upper left corner of the graph (hot, bright stars) to the lower right corner of the graph (dim, cool stars). Supergiants and giants lie above the main sequence stars, and dwarf stars are found below it. Have students plot this band on the graph using cut-out circles (e.g., adhesive craft-foam circles of various colors).

Language Connection:

Create a mnemonic for remembering the order of the seven main types of stars as they are ranked by temperature, beginning with O (the brightest type of star) to M (the dimmest type of star). For example:

Star Type   Mnemonic Example

O - blue stars   Out
B - blue-white stars   Beyond
A - white stars   A
F - yellow-white stars   Far
G - yellow stars   Galaxy
K - yellow-orange stars   Keeps
M - red stars   Moving

Have students research named stars and identify the type of star each is. For example:

Betelgeuse is a red supergiant.
Mira A is a red giant.
Barnard's Star is a red dwarf.
Proxima Centauri is a binary star system.

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display to tactually illustrate how stars appear scattered in the night sky. Each star is represented by a raised bump.

When building the classroom display of the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram be certain to assign a discernible texture to each color (e.g., smooth texture = blue; rough texture = yellow; etc.). Apply large print and braille labels to the graph.

Science Tidbit:

How bright a star appears from Earth depends on the actual brightness of the star and the distance from Earth to the star.

The lower a star is in the sky, the more it appears to twinkle because its light experiences a lot of atmospheric interference.

A supernova results in a star shining as bright as 100 million Suns for a short time.

Visit the following Websites for more information about stars:

   *   NASA's Imagine the Universe: Stars

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l2/stars.html

   *   Sea and Sky: Cosmic Wonders: Stars

http://www.seasky.org/celestial-objects/stars.html

   *   World Book at NASA: Star

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/star_worldbook.html


Activity 15: Creating Constellations


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of constellations.

Vocabulary:

Big Dipper, Camelopardalis, Cassiopeia, Cepheus, circumpolar, constellation, Draco, Ecliptic, Little Dipper, pointer stars, Polaris, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Zodiac

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Ursa Major/Ursa Minor Overlay

   *   Northern Circumpolar Dome Display

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities, Language Connection, and Math Connection):

   *   Graphic Art Tape

   *   Black construction paper

   *   Braille paper and braillewriter (or slate and stylus)

   *   Star-shaped stickers or craft foam star shapes

   *   White yarn, crayon, puff paint, or Wikki-Stix®

   *   Picture Maker or Draftsman

   *   Sources (books and Websites) to research myths about constellations

Procedure:

  1.   Ask students what they might already know about constellations.

      -   Constellations are groups of stars that form patterns in the night sky.

      -   There are a total of 88 constellations, each representing a different, distinctive area of the sky.

      -   Constellations are similar to dot-to-dot pictures. When imaginary lines are drawn to link stars in a constellation, a recognizable pattern appears.

      -   Constellations are invented, not discovered. Many were invented thousands of years ago and influenced by Greek and Roman mythology.

      -   The constellations that are visible will depend on the time of year, time of night, and where you are on Earth. As the Earth moves, a constellation will appear to change position in the sky.

      -   Stars within a single constellation are at different distances from the Earth and from each other.

  2.   Discuss the practical purpose of constellations, especially as they were used many years ago:

      -   Telling time

      -   Agricultural planning

      -   Guiding navigators

Today, constellations are used as a map to find star clusters, nebulae, galaxies, and other objects in the sky.

  3.   Use the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display (an example of a star map) to demonstrate the main constellations that appear to circle Polaris as the Earth rotates. These circumpolar constellations are visible year round in the Northern Hemisphere. Explain that Polaris [the large raised bump in the center of the display] is a very important star. It is the north pole of the sky-the point aligned with Earth's axis. As the Earth rotates about its axis, the constellations appear to rotate counterclockwise around Polaris. Constellations shown on the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display include Cassiopeia, Camelopardalis, Cepheus, Draco, Ursa Major (only Big Dipper portion is shown), and Ursa Minor (Little Dipper). These constellations are never visible in the Southern Hemisphere.

  4.   Use the Ursa Major/Ursa Minor Overlay to show larger images of the two constellations. The constellations are shown in combination with their imaginary pictures, that is, a Big Bear and a Little Bear. Have the students locate the Big Dipper within Ursa Major. Unlike the rest of the solid lines connecting the stars within this constellation, the Big Dipper's imaginary lines are dotted. The Big Dipper is shaped like a saucepan with four stars forming the square shape of the pan; three more stars form the handle. The three stars of the Big Dipper's handle create the bear's tail. The two stars farthest from the handle point to Polaris, thus they are called pointer stars.

  5.   Next, use the Ursa Major/Ursa Minor Overlay to discuss the Little Dipper (Ursa Minor). Like Ursa Major, Ursa Minor is surrounded by its imaginary picture, that is, a Little Bear. The Little Dipper is smaller and squarer than the Big Dipper. Notice on the Northern Circumpolar Dome that the bowl of the Little Dipper faces the handle of the Big Dipper. The constellations' two handles point in opposite directions from each other. Just like in the Big Dipper, four stars of the Little Dipper form the square shape of the pan; three stars form the handle (or the Little Bear's tail). The last star in the Little Bear's tail is Polaris (represented by the biggest dot in the constellation). To find Polaris in the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display is the same as finding the end of Little Bear's tail.

Extension Activities:

Review the imaginary band of constellations that make up the Zodiac. These constellations divide the Sun's Ecliptic into sections. The Ecliptic is the Sun's apparent path among the constellations in the course of a year as seen from Earth. In the past, the constellations in the Zodiac were thought to have mystical and astrological importance; today they serve to define imaginary regions in the sky. Discuss different meanings of "astronomy" and "astrology." [While astronomy is based on science, astrology is not. Astronomy studies the location, motion, and nature of objects in space. Astrology is the interpretation of the influence of stars on human behavior and lives.]

Assign each Zodiac constellation to a small group or pair of students and ask them to do the following:

   *   Create a tactile/print drawing of their constellation.

   *   Report on a myth or story related to its origin.

Note: Don't forget the little-known thirteenth Zodiac constellation, Ophiuchus, that's included on modern star maps. For more information, visit NASA: Space Place: What's Your Sign?:

http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/en/kids/st6starfinder/st6starfinder2.shtml

Math Connection:

Have students research as many of the 88 constellations as possible and then create a bar graph showing how many of the constellations are land animals, people, water creatures, inanimate objects, and so forth. Possible classifications are the following:

People
Cassiopeia, Queen of Ethiopia
Orion, The Hunter
Hercules, The Strong Man
Boötes, The Herdsman    Birds
Columba, The Dove
Grus, The Crane
Pavo, The Peacock
Tucana, The Toucan
Water Creatures
Cancer, The Crab
Pisces, The Fish
Dorado, The Swordfish
Delphinus, The Dolphin    Inanimate Objects
Crater, The Cup
Pictor, The Painter's Easel
Caelum, The Chisel
Fornax, The Furnace
Land Animals
Leo, The Lion
Canis Major, The Greater Dog
Ursa Minor, The Lesser Bear
Taurus, The Bull    Mythical Creatures
Draco, The Dragon
Pegasus, The Winged Horse
Serpens, The Serpent
Centaurus, The Centaur

Emphasize that the majority of star patterns or constellations do not resemble the figures they are named after.

Language Connection:

Review with the students some of the myths associated with the constellations. Here are a few examples:

In Greek mythology, Cassiopeia was the mother of Andromeda. Because she bragged that she was more beautiful than the sea nymphs, Poseidon punished her by placing her upside down in the sky for part of the year.

Corvus, the crow, was a bird of the Greek god Apollo. When the crow upset Apollo, Apollo changed the crow's feathers from silver to black and placed him in the sky.

Cancer represents the crab that Hera, a Greek goddess, sent to distract the hero Hercules as he was fighting Hydra, the sea serpent.

Orion was a mighty hunter shaking a shield toward Taurus, while holding a club over his head. The row of three stars in the middle of the constellation forms Orion's belt.

Ask each student, or small group of students, to create an original constellation and write an invented story/myth about how it came to be present in the sky. The pattern of the constellation can be plotted on a sheet of black construction paper with star stickers or star shapes cut from craft foam of a contrasting color (e.g., yellow, white, silver). Lines between the stars can be "drawn" with white yarn, crayon, puff paint, Wikki-Stix®, etc. Have the student(s) present the new constellation and its myth to the rest of the class.

If available, the student can use Picture Maker to plot the new constellation using textured strips and shapes. The Draftsman can also be used by students to draw constellations on the special drawing film using a ballpoint pen. Either apply star stickers to the film OR draw outline stars on the film. The stars can then be connected with tactile lines drawn with a ballpoint pen.

An additional way to make tactile maps of self-created constellations is for the student to randomly braille full braille cells [dots 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] onto braille paper to represent stars, then link the "stars" with graphic art tape. To show the varying brightness of the stars within one constellation, full braille cells can be used to draw the brightest stars, and stars of lesser brightness can be represented by braille letters containing fewer dots.

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display to model the apparent daily rotation of the circumpolar constellations as viewed from Earth. Emphasize during the demonstration that it is not the constellations that rotate; instead, it is the rotation of the Earth that changes our view of the constellations in the sky. Using the Northern Circumpolar Dome Display, highlight how the constellations Ursa Major (the Big Dipper) and Cassiopeia are always opposite each other as the Earth rotates. Rotate the dome and have them notice how these constellations always rotate around Polaris (the large star in the center of the dome). It takes about 24 hours for the constellations to make one complete turn of 360 degrees. Each quarter turn of the dome represents about 6 hours. Show the student how Cassiopeia seems to change from an M-shape to a W-shape as the dome rotates. Review the myth behind Cassiopeia [detailed under "Language Connection"] that is associated with this change.

Use the Ursa Major/Ursa Minor Overlay to reinforce the concepts of imaginary lines connecting stars, associated pictures/myths, Polaris, etc.

Visit a local planetarium.

Emphasize that although the individual stars in a constellation may appear very close to each other, they are actually separated by huge distances in space and have no real connection to each other at all.

Science Tidbit:

Polaris has been referred to by many names including the "North Star," "Pole Star," "Ship Star," "Leading Star," "Star of the Sea," and "Steering Star."

The largest of the 88 recognized constellations is named Hydra.

Sirius is the night sky's brightest star.

Visit the following Websites for more information about constellations:

   *   StarChild: 88 Officially Recognized Constellations

http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/questions/88constellations.html

   *   Windows to the Universe®: Constellations

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/the_universe/Constellations/constnavi.html


Activity 16: Galaxies Galore


Objective:

Learn about the many billions of galaxies in the Universe and become familiar with the different types of galaxies by making models of each.

Vocabulary:

Andromeda, barred spiral galaxy, Big Bang Theory, cluster, disk, elliptical galaxy, gravity, irregular galaxy, light-year, Milky Way, spiral galaxy, star, starburst galaxy, supercluster

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Galaxy Type Overlays

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities and Math Connection):

   *   Draftsman (and related drawing film) or Picture Maker

   *   White playdough, clay, or Crayola® Model Magic (enough to make a variety of small galaxies)

   *   Large black poster board

   *   (2) Hula hoops

   *   Wikki-Stix®

   *   Football, plastic egg, inflated balloon, and/or soccer ball

   *   Cinnamon roll, fried egg, and/or pinwheel toy

   *   Scrap pieces of paper (scrunched up) and/or potato

   *   Blue, red, and yellow glitter or small colored beads

Procedure:

Ask students what they might already know about galaxies.

   *   Galaxies are huge collections of stars, gas, and dust that are held together by gravity.

   *   Galaxies vary in appearance, size, and shape. No two galaxies are exactly alike.

   *   Galaxies are not spread evenly throughout the Universe.

   *   Galaxies move through space at incredible speeds.

   *   It is unknown exactly how many galaxies are in the Universe, but astronomers believe there are billions.

   *   Galaxies gather in clusters or groups.

Review the three major classifications of galaxies:

Galaxy Type   Description

Spiral Galaxies   Have a central bulge with two or more arms or dust rings winding around a bright center. Spiral galaxies have a mixture of blue, white, yellow, and red stars. The central bulge contains older, red stars and the arms contain newer, blue stars. Medium-aged (yellow) stars are found throughout the area surrounding the bulge (the disk).

Barred Spirals-A subgroup of spiral galaxies that have a bar-shaped central area with a spiral arm extending from each end.

Elliptical Galaxies   Enormous spheres or elongated spheres of stars. They don't have arms like a spiral galaxy. They contain mostly old, red stars and have little or no gas or dust. The largest galaxies are elliptical and contain as many as a trillion stars.

Irregular Galaxies   Lack a definite shape and tend to have very hot, newer stars mixed in with a lot of gas and dust. They have a blue appearance because of the presence of young, hot stars. They also lack a distinct central region and appear flat.

Extension Activities:

Have students locate real objects to represent each galaxy type. For example, a toy pinwheel, an uncurled cinnamon roll, or fried egg can demonstrate the shape of a spiral galaxy. A football, soccer ball, an inflated balloon, or plastic egg can represent an elliptical galaxy. A scrunched piece of paper, an irregular-shaped potato, or an irregular outline shape made from WikkiStix® can represent an irregular galaxy.

Students can create models of various types of galaxies using playdough, clay, or Crayola® Model Magic. Provide red, blue, and yellow glitter or beads that students can press into their galaxy models to represent old (red), new (blue), and/or medium-aged (yellow) star formations. After the models have hardened, randomly place the formed galaxies on a contrasting background (e.g., black poster board) to make a cluster of galaxies. Students can name their individual galaxies and, after combining them, name the cluster. Emphasize that galaxies are grouped together in clusters (from a few dozen to several thousand) and each cluster can contain a mixture of galaxy types. Clusters of galaxies combine to form superclusters. For example, the Coma Cluster, which contains thousands of galaxies, is the center of the Coma Supercluster.

Gravitational forces pull galaxies together. Two galaxies might pass each other or collide. To demonstrate how galaxies change shape when they collide, smash together two perfectly rounded clay or playdough balls. After they collide, are the two elliptical "galaxies" still perfectly round? Does the collision result in a new shape? Emphasize that colliding galaxies often merge to become a bigger galaxy. It is usually not the stars of the two colliding galaxies that hit each other, but rather their gas clouds. A starburst galaxy results after a collision between two galaxies and is the location of stars forming at a very high rate.

In 1929, Edwin Hubble discovered that distant galaxies were traveling away from Earth at tremendous speeds suggesting that the Universe is expanding. Discuss how his finding influenced the proposal of the Big Bang Theory. [This theory suggests that our Universe and everything in it formed about 14 billion years ago from a single violent explosion. The first elements to form were hydrogen and helium. The Universe kept expanding from that moment and continues to get bigger today. It is uncertain whether the size of the Universe is finite or infinite.]

Math Connection:

Have students build (with overlapping hula hoops) or sketch (on a large poster board) a large Venn diagram showing the star population of each galaxy type. Label one circle "Mostly Old Stars" and the other circle "Mostly New Stars." Draw or place galaxy types (formed during the Extension Activities) within each appropriate section of the Venn diagram.

Elliptical Galaxies: Mostly older, dimmer stars (red)

Spiral Galaxies: Mixture of young and old stars (blue and red)

Irregular Galaxies: Lots of young stars (blue)

Explain the meaning of light-year. Galaxies and the distances between them are huge. Light-years are used to describe distances between stars and galaxies. A light-year is the distance a beam of light travels in a year-about 6 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers). Light travels at 186,000 miles per second (300,000 kilometers per second). Have students research the light-year distances between various galaxies. For example, Andromeda Galaxy is about 2 million light-years away from the Milky Way.

Language Connection:

Galaxies have been described as "Islands in the Universe." Using this phrase, have students compose poems about what they know about galaxies. Example:

Islands in the Universe
From elliptical that
Lack gas and dust
To spirals with
Winding arms-a must
From irregulars that
Lack shape and luster
To those that form
Many a cluster

Galaxies are indeed diverse!

Each new galaxy discovered receives a number and sometimes a name. Have students research different names and assigned numbers to galaxies, and then identify them as spiral, irregular, or elliptical. Some examples are the following:

Spiral Galaxies:
M104/Sombrero Galaxy
M51/Whirlpool Galaxy
NGC253/Sculptor Galaxy
M63/Sunflower Galaxy
M33/Triangulum Galaxy
M101/Pinwheel Galaxy
UGC 10214/Tadpole Galaxy

Barred Spirals:
NGC 1300
NGC 1512
NGC 1672

Irregular Galaxies:
NGC 292 Small Magellanic Cloud (in the Local Group)
Large Megellanic Cloud (in the Local Group)

Elliptical Galaxies:
NGC 4881 (in Coma Cluster)
M87 (in Virgo Cluster)

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Galaxy Type Overlays to further assess the students' identification of galaxy shapes. Using the provided 4 × 2 grid tray, randomly place the four galaxy images across the upper row. Then have the student identify each galaxy type by placing its name card (in braille and/or print) in the empty compartment below the corresponding galaxy image.

If available, use Picture Maker or the Draftsman to draw different galaxy types. Create a "galaxy sky" by randomly arranging the galaxies on the Picture Maker board or piece of Draftsman film. Have the student tactually search and identify each galaxy by type.

Science Tidbit:

The Andromeda Galaxy and our Milky Way are expected to collide in about 5 billion years.

Hubble's Law states that the farther a galaxy is from Earth, the faster it is moving away from us.

The Megellanic Clouds, seen only from the Southern Hemisphere, are irregular dwarf galaxies that look like thumbprints in the sky. They are named for Ferdinand Magellan who saw them as he sailed around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa on the first voyage around the world in 1519-1523.

Visit the following Websites for more information about galaxies:

   *   Space.com: All About Galaxies

http://www.space.com/galaxy/

   *   NASA Science: Astrophysics: Galaxies

http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics/what-are-galaxies

   *   HubbleSite: Picture Album: Galaxies

http://hubblesite.org/gallery/album/galaxy/

   *   National Optical Astronomy Observatory

http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/galaxies.html

   *   NASA Science: Astrophysics: The Big Bang

http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics/what-powered-the-big-bang


Activity 17: Milky Way Galaxy


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features of the Milky Way Galaxy, especially its overall shape and the location of our Solar System within the galaxy.

Vocabulary:

Andromeda, barred spiral galaxy, black hole, interstellar matter, light-year, Local Group, Milky Way Galaxy, Orion Arm, Solar System, spiral galaxy, stars, Sun, Universe

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Milky Way Galaxy Overlay

   *   Galaxy Type Overlays

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities and Math Connection):

   *   Crayola® Model Magic, clay, or playdough (enough for each student or pair of students to create a model of the Milky Way)

   *   Small bead

   *   Poster board

   *   Two items chosen by the student(s)-one larger than the other (e.g., two jar lids)

   *   Labeling material to create braille/print labels

   *   Blue pipe cleaners or WikkiStix®

   *   Red tissue paper

   *   Graphic art tape or puff paint

   *   Sources (books and Websites) to research information about the Milky Way Galaxy.

Procedure:

Review unique features and interesting facts about the Milky Way Galaxy with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about our home galaxy.

   *   The Milky Way is one of billions of galaxies that make up the Universe.

   *   The Milky Way has spiraling arms that extend out from a bright, central bulge.

   *   All objects in the Milky Way revolve around its center.

   *   Gravity holds the stars, gas, and dust in orbit around the center of the Milky Way.

   *   The Solar System is located on one of the spiral arms of the Milky Way, about half way out.

   *   From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a hazy band or cloud of light that stretches across the sky.

Discuss important features of the Milky Way:

Bulge-central area that has the highest density of stars and the area at which the Milky Way is its thickest. Stars closest to the center (where gravity is the strongest) orbit faster than those near the edge of the galaxy. Scientists believe that a massive black hole resides at the center of the Milky Way.

Disk-a flattened area of the Milky Way Galaxy made up of spiraling arms-bands of brilliant stars. Younger stars reside in this area, as does virtually all of the galaxy's gas and dust. The Solar System is located far from the center of the Milky Way along the Orion Arm.

Halo-spherical region with a low density of stars that surrounds the entire spiral disk. It contains the oldest stars in the galaxy.

Allow each student to create individual models of the Milky Way Galaxy using Crayola® Model Magic, clay, or playdough, forming the central bulge and disk with spiraling arms. Insert a small bead (discernible by touch and of a contrasting color) in one of the arms to represent the location of the Solar System. Indicate that their models show a top view of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Extension Activities:

Explain that the Milky Way Galaxy belongs to a cluster of galaxies called the Local Group. This galaxy cluster is made up of 30 to 40 galaxies of various sizes and types. The Andromeda Galaxy is the largest galaxy in the group; the Milky Way is the second largest. On a large poster board placed on a flat surface, have students make a tactile map of our galaxy "neighborhood." Encourage them to be creative in their selection of items to represent the galaxies. For example, the Milky Way can be represented like so: blue WikkiStix® or pipe cleaners (to represent the location of young stars) can be used to create the winding arms that surround a jar lid (the central bulge of the galaxy). Wrap the jar lid with red tissue paper to represent this area that contains older stars. A braille/print sticker indicating "You Are Here" can be placed near the Orion Arm (or Local Arm) to mark the location of the Solar System. Since Andromeda is the largest galaxy in the Local Group, it can be represented by a larger jar lid. Attach braille/print labels to the two jar lids to indicate the name of each galaxy. Draw tactile/print lines (e.g., using graphic art tape or puff paint) between the galaxies and indicate light-year distances with a braille/print label.

Math Connection:

Have students research and create a pie chart showing the Milky Way's galactic composition: 90% stars and 10% gas and dust [interstellar matter]. There are billions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy, but most are not visible from Earth.

Have students research the following and make braille/print labels that can be taped temporarily on the Milky Way Galaxy Overlay to indicate their findings. Remind students that a light-year is the distance light travels in a year-approximately 6 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers).

   *   Diameter of the entire Milky Way [100,000 light-years]

   *   Distance of the Solar System from the center of the Milky Way Galaxy [about 30,000 light-years]

   *   The thickness of the Milky Way's central bulge [about 3,000 light-years in depth]

Language Connection:

Discuss the origin of the Milky Way Galaxy's name and related myths. [Its name originates from the Greek and Latin words for "milk." A myth by ancient Greeks suggested that the white streak in the sky was a "river of milk."]

Research the names of the spiral arms of the Milky Way (e.g., Cygnus, Perseus, Orion, Sagittarius, Scutum-Crux, Norma), as well as the names of the "members" of the Local Group (e.g., Sculptor, Tucana, Triangulum, Leo I, Phoenix Dwarf, etc.).

Have each student write a story about his imaginary travels through the Milky Way and/or other galaxies.

Visual Adaptation:

Using the Milky Way Galaxy Overlay, emphasize the difference between the views shown-top view and side view. The top view represents what the Milky Way Galaxy would look like from above-that is, a gigantic whirlpool with spiraling arms. The side view looks like a thin disk with a slight bump in the center. Explain that we are always inside the Milky Way Galaxy, therefore both the side view and the top view cannot be seen from Earth's perspective. The overlay also shows the position of our Solar System (represented by a bold raised dot) within the Milky Way. Emphasize that the Sun is not located in the center of the Milky Way.

Using the Galaxy Type Overlays, have the student locate the galaxy type that illustrates the shape of the Milky Way. [Although the Milky Way has typically been classified as a normal spiral, recent evidence suggests it is a barred spiral galaxy.] Visit the following: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap050825.html

Science Tidbit:

The Solar System revolves around the middle of the Milky Way about once every 240 million years.

The Milky Way's closest neighbors are the Large and Small Megellanic Clouds.

In 1918, Harlow Shapley, an American astronomer, was the first to give a realistic estimate of the size of the Milky Way Galaxy and the location of its center.

Visit the following Websites for more information about the Milky Way:

   *   NASA's Imagine the Universe! The Milky Way Galaxy

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/features/objects/milkyway1.html

   *   Atlas of the Universe: A Map of the Milky Way

http://www.atlasoftheuniverse.com/milkyway.html

   *   Space.com: All About the Milky Way

http://www.space.com/milkyway/


Activity 18: Abundant Asteroids


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of asteroids and build a model of the Asteroid Belt.

Vocabulary:

Asteroid, Asteroid Belt, binary asteroids, Centaur asteroids, Main Belt asteroids, meteor, meteorite, meteoroid, near-Earth asteroid, planetoid, Trojan asteroids

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Our Solar System Display

   *   Relative Distances of the Planets Display

Materials for building asteroid model(s):

   *   Crayola® Model Magic (small amount for each student or pairs of students)

   *   Acrylic paint (black and different shades of gray) and paintbrushes

Procedure:

Review unique features of asteroids with the class. Ask students to share what they might already know about asteroids.

   *   Asteroids are rocky remains from the formation of the Solar System millions of years ago, especially that of the inner planets.

   *   Most are composed of rock, but some contain metal such as nickel and iron.

   *   Most are located in the Asteroid Belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.

   *   Asteroids orbit the Sun.

   *   There are millions of asteroids.

   *   Most asteroids are irregular in shape.

   *   Asteroids vary widely in size-from tiny pebbles to rocks several hundred miles wide.

   *   Most have been studied through telescopic observations.

   *   Evidence exists that asteroids, on rare occasions, have hit Earth.

Have students build irregular-shaped "asteroids" using Crayola® Model Magic, forming craters into the shapes. Let the formed shapes harden overnight and then paint them a dark color (black and different shades of gray). Arrange the collection of asteroids in a ring on a table or floor to form an Asteroid Belt. Then position planet models (built during previous activities) around the Asteroid Belt.

Extension Activities:

Discuss what prevents the millions of asteroids from hitting the inner planets. [Like planets and moons, asteroids are kept from flying out into space by the Sun's gravity. Without the Sun's gravity, they would fly out in a straight line. Jupiter's gravity also pulls on the asteroids and herds them into a safe region of the Solar System. Jupiter acts as protector by preventing incoming space junk from striking the inner Solar System.]

Have students compare and contrast asteroids and comets.

   *   Asteroids and comets are leftover debris from the planetary disk from which the Solar System formed.

   *   Asteroids are made up of mostly rock and iron (like the terrestrial planets).

   *   Comets are made up of mostly ice and rock.

   *   Asteroids form in the warmer regions of the Solar System.

   *   Comets form in the colder regions of the Solar System, beyond the orbits of the outermost planets.

   *   Asteroids are inactive objects.

   *   Comets can sometimes be active when their ices are vaporized by the Sun's heat.

Use a map or globe to locate the two locations on Earth that have sustained an asteroid impact: Flagstaff, Arizona, and the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula in Mexico. The asteroid that is said to have brought about the extinction of dinosaurs on Earth over 65 million years ago, is thought to have landed on the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico.

Math Connection:

Research the names and sizes of some of the largest asteroids (e.g., Ceres, Pallas, Vesta, etc.). Rank them by diameter from largest to smallest.

Asteroids are grouped according to their orbit range. Research the following types of asteroids and indicate their location in the Solar System:

   *   Near-Earth asteroids-travel close to the Sun and cross Earth's orbit

   *   Main Belt asteroids-located within the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter

   *   Trojan asteroids-share Jupiter's orbital path

   *   Centaur asteroids-located between Jupiter and Neptune

Language Connection:

Discuss the origins of the word "asteroid." It means "starlike" in Greek.

Have students create their own fact cards or fact books about asteroids.

Have students write a story about a fictitious asteroid impact on Earth, detailing possible catastrophic consequences (e.g., blockage of sunlight, firestorms, extinction of certain animals/plants, tidal waves, earthquakes, climate changes, etc.). Or, write about the giant asteroid that left the iridium layer 65 million years ago and what it did that could have brought about the demise of the dinosaurs.

Visual Adaptation:

Use Our Solar System Display, as well as the Relative Distances of the Planets Display, to review the location of the Asteroid Belt within the Solar System.

Science Tidbit:

Some asteroids, called "binary asteroids," have moons of their own (e.g., asteroid Ida has its own moon named Dactyl).

NASA's Galileo spacecraft was the first to observe an asteroid close-up.

In 2000, NASA's Near-Earth Asteroid Rendezvous (NEAR) spacecraft went into orbit around the asteroid 433 Eros and landed on Eros in 2001.

"9969 Braille" is the name of a near-Earth asteroid. It was discovered in 1992. For more information and images of Asteroid 9969 Braille, visit the following:

http://www.solarviews.com/eng/braille.htm
http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap990805.html

Visit the following Websites for more information about asteroids:

   *   National Geographic: Science and Space: Asteroids and Comets

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/asteroids-comets-article.html

   *   Windows to the Universe ®: Asteroid Image List

http://www.windows.ucar.edu/tour/link=/asteroids/asteroid_il.html

   *   NSSDC Photo Gallery Asteroids

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery/photogallery-asteroids.html

   *   NASA: Near Earth Object Program

http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/faq


Activity 19: Cool Comets


Objective:

Learn about the interesting features and characteristics of a comet including its main parts and orbital pattern.

Vocabulary:

Asteroid, coma, comet, dust tail, gas-ion tail, Halley's comet, hydrogen cloud, Kuiper Belt, meteor, meteor shower, meteorite, meteoroid, nucleus, Oort Cloud, orbit, solar wind, Sun

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Orbit of a Comet Overlay

Optional Materials (for Extension Activities):

   *   Wide, yellow velvet ribbon

   *   Narrow, blue satin ribbon

   *   (1) 1-inch or 2-inch diameter Styrofoam(TM) ball, or modeling clay, for each pair (or small group) of students

   *   (2) pipe cleaners, one yellow and one blue, for each pair (or group) of students

   *   Large poster board or Foam-Cor® display

   *   Labeling material (to make braille and print labels)

   *   Sources (books and Websites) to research comets

   *   Picture Maker

Procedure:

  1.   Ask students what they already know about comets and the main features of a comet that make it unique.

      -   A comet is a large ball of ice, dust, and rock.

      -   A comet moves faster as it gets closer to the Sun.

      -   A comet's tail always points away from the Sun.

      -   A comet's tail becomes longer as the comet gets closer to the Sun, and disappears as it moves farther away from the Sun.

      -   A comet orbits the Sun in a highly elliptical orbit.

  2.   Describe the three main parts of a comet:

      -   Nucleus-the solid core of the comet. It is made up of rock, water ice, as well as methane, ammonia, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. It resembles a dirty snowball. Everytime a comet orbits the Sun, more gases in the nucleus evaporate.

      -   Coma-dusty, fuzzy cloud that surrounds the nucleus of the comet as it nears the Sun. The coma becomes larger as the comet gets closer to the Sun. Some comets have a hydrogen cloud that surrounds the coma.

Together, the nucleus and coma make up the "head" of the comet.

      -   Tail-extends from the comet and always points away from the Sun. The tail can extend millions of miles into space as the solar wind blows the dust and gas away from the comet's head.

Some comets have two tails. There are two types of tails that can form from the head of a comet as it nears the Sun-the dust tail and the gas-ion tail. The dust tail is broad and gently curves away from the comet's head and appears yellow. The gas-ion tail is thinner and streams away from the comet's head in a straight line. It is mostly gas and appears blue. Both tails grow as the comet nears the Sun and shrink as the comet moves away from the Sun.

  3.   Make a model of a comet and demonstrate its orbit. Here are some suggestions:

      -   Provide each pair (or group) of students with a Styrofoam(TM) ball or enough modeling clay (e.g., Crayola® Model Magic) to form the nucleus of the comet. Using two different colors and lengths of pipe cleaners (preferably blue and yellow), form the tails of the comet. Insert the pipe cleaners into the nucleus of the comet. The blue pipe cleaner should be straight and the yellow slightly curved. Because comets are usually named after the person(s) who discovered them, have the students name their comets after themselves.

      -   Have four students reenact the orbit of a comet around the Sun, demonstrating how the comet's tail changes as it nears the Sun. Have one student represent the Sun and have another student represent the comet's nucleus. Have the "nucleus" and another student hold opposite ends of a wide, yellow velvet ribbon to represent the dust tail. Have the "nucleus" and another student hold opposite ends of a blue, satin ribbon to represent the gas-ion tail. As the "comet" orbits the "Sun," have the "tails" shorten or lengthen their ribbons as they approach and move away from the Sun. Also, have the "comet" increase its walking speed as it nears the Sun.

      -   Make a large classroom display of a comet and/or a comet's orbit on a large poster board or piece of Foam-Cor®. Make sure all the important elements are tactually different and of high visual contrast when using textured/collage paper or markers. Add labels for the various parts in both print and braille.

      -   Use Picture Maker to demonstrate the orbit of a comet and how its tails change as the comet nears and then moves away from the Sun. [See explanation and diagram in Visual Adaptation section of this activity.]

Extension Activities:

Ask students to research how comets differ from asteroids and prepare a chart that highlights the differences.

Example:

Comets   Asteroids

Bodies of ice and bits of rock   Small chunks of rock or metal

Usually orbit the Sun in one of two regions: the Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud   Most are found in the Asteroid Belt, the large space between Mars and Jupiter

Begin to form tails as they approach the Sun   Do not form tails

May or may not orbit the Sun in the same counterclockwise direction as the planets   Orbit the Sun in the same counterclockwise direction as the planets

Discuss the scientific differences between meteoroids, meteors, and meteorites.

Meteoroid-a sand- to boulder-sized particle of debris in the Solar System, which like all objects in the Solar System, orbits the Sun. Larger meteoroids are usually pieces of shattered asteroids; smaller ones are dust particles from comets.

Meteor-a bright streak or trail of light that is seen in the sky when a meteoroid burns up in Earth's atmosphere. It is commonly called a "shooting star," although it has nothing to do with a star.

Meteorite-a small rock that survives the passage through Earth's atmosphere and actually strikes the ground.

How are comets responsible for causing meteor showers? [Meteor showers occur when Earth, during its revolution around the Sun, passes through the debris of dust left behind by a comet orbiting the Sun.]

Math Connection:

Halley's Comet, named after Sir Edmund Halley, is visible from Earth about every 76 years. It last appeared in 1986. Research and make a timeline of past Halley's Comet appearances (e.g., 1682, 1758, etc.). When is its next appearance expected? [2061]

Have students research orbital periods of short-period comets and long-period comets:

Short-period comets-have an orbital period of less than 200 years. They originate in the Kuiper Belt. An example is Halley's Comet.

Long-period comets-have an orbital period of more than 200 years and originate in the Oort Cloud. An example is Comet Hale-Bopp that has an orbital period of about 2,500 years.

Language Connection:

Read about facts, legends and myths related to comets. In the past, people feared comets as omens of disaster. For more information, visit the following:

   *   http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/scitech/display.cfm?ST_ID=205

   *   http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/resources/explorations/cometmyth/home.html

Ask students to write a story (or poem) called "A Tale of Two Tails" that explains the differences between the gas-ion tail and dust tail of a comet.

NASA's Deep Impact was the first space mission to probe beneath the surface of a comet. In 2004, NASA's Stardust mission collected dust particles from a comet. Have each student, or pair of students, research and prepare a newspaper article that reports the facts about either, or both, of these missions and related findings. For more information, visit the following:

http://deepimpact.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/index.html
http://stardust.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/details.html
http://spaceplace.jpl.nasa.gov/en/kids/stardust/index.shtml

Have students research the names of some comets and what is known about each. Examples include the following:

   *   Great Comet of 1811

   *   Encke's Comet (and the Tunguska Event of 1908)

   *   Great Comet of 1843

   *   Comet Borrelly

   *   Pons-Winnecke Comet

   *   Comet Wild 2

   *   Comet Tempel-Tuttle

   *   Halley's Comet

   *   Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

   *   Hale-Bopp

   *   Comet McNaught (the Great Comet of 2007)

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Orbit of a Comet Overlay to reinforce the concepts covered in this activity. When using the overlay, ask the student the following questions:

   *   Which way does the tail of a comet always point? [Away from the Sun.]

   *   When is the tail of a comet the largest? [When it is nearest the Sun.]

   *   When is the tail of a comet the smallest? [When it is farthest from the Sun.]

Use Picture Maker to model the elliptical orbit of a comet and how the tail grows as it nears the Sun, then gradually disappears as it moves away from the Sun. A large, white circle can represent the Sun. If needed, temporarily label this piece with a braille/print label. Use a combination of curved and straight strips (varying lengths) to form the comet's dust and gas-ion tails, respectively.

Science Tidbit:

"Comet" comes from the Greek word kome meaning "hair." Long ago, people thought a comet looked like a star with hair flowing from behind.

In 1994, Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 was pulled apart by Jupiter's gravity and crashed into the planet.

The Murchison Meteorite, a fragment of a comet that landed in Australia in 1969, contained amino acids, the building blocks of life.

Visit the following Websites for more information about comets:

   *   National Geographic: Science and Space: Asteroids and Comets

http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system/asteroids-comets-article.html

   *   World Book at NASA: Comet

http://www.nasa.gov/worldbook/comet_worldbook.html


Activity 20: Space Exploration


Objective:

Learn about the history and importance of space exploration, including the various types of spacecraft-rockets, space stations, satellites, and space probes. The Space Shuttle, in particular, is studied.

Vocabulary:

Astronauts, external fuel tank, orbiter, rocket, satellite, solid rocket boosters, space probe, Space Shuttle, space station

Materials:

Sense of Science: Astronomy materials:

   *   Space Shuttle Overlay

Recommended Materials:

   *   3-D Model of Space Shuttle (and other spacecraft models)

Procedure:

Begin by discussing the importance of space exploration. [Space exploration has influenced and resulted in numerous discoveries and advancements in a variety of areas including computer technology, health and medicine, national security, building materials, environmental management, and much more. At the very least, space exploration continues to satisfy our inquisitive desire to know more about our Universe.]

Explain the differences between rockets, satellites, space probes, and space stations. How do they work, what missions have they accomplished, what are their destinations, and so forth?

Rockets are equipped with special engines that carry their own fuel. They travel at speeds that allow them to break free of gravity and enter Earth's orbit. There are two types-solid-propellant rockets and liquid-propellant rockets. For an overview of the history of rocket development, visit http://quest.nasa.gov/space/teachers/rockets/history.html

Artificial Satellites are used in Earth's orbit for a variety of purposes including radio, television, and telephone communications, military purposes, hurricane tracking/weather forecasting, and mapping.

Space Probes fly by, land on, or smash into the surface of planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other regions of space. They carry data gathering equipment, cameras, and radio transmitters. Probes have been sent to every major planet. Because they are unmanned, they are a safer and cheaper way to explore space. Examples include Cassini-Huygens, Venus Express, and New Horizons.

Space Stations are designed for habitation, away from Earth, for long periods of time. The International Space Station (ISS) is in orbit around Earth and serves as a permanent laboratory in space where astronauts conduct long-term research projects. The construction of the ISS began in 1988 and is expected to be completed in 2010. It is the largest structure built in space and orbits 240 miles (390 kilometers) above Earth. Over a dozen nations are involved in its construction. Earlier space stations included Skylab and Mir. Space stations are also being planned for on the Moon, and possibly Mars.

Extension Activities:

Discuss the history, purpose, and main parts of the Space Shuttle. Ask the students what they might already know about the Space Shuttle:

   *   It is a reusable spacecraft.

   *   It is launched by rockets from a vertical position.

   *   It is launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

   *   It orbits the Earth.

   *   It lands horizontally on a runway like a glider.

   *   It acts as both a cargo carrier and a spacecraft for humans.

   *   It is covered by special tiles that protect it from intense heat.

   *   It hosts a variety of tasks performed by astronauts including scientific experiments; launching, repairing, and retrieving satellites; photographing Earth; assisting in the building of the International Space Station; and using special telescopes to study other planets.

Review the three main parts of the Space Shuttle. Complement the review of the main parts of the Space Shuttle with Website photos/video, three-dimensional models, and APH's tactile/visual overlay of the spacecraft.

Orbiter is the part of the Space Shuttle that looks similar to an airplane. It includes a crew cabin, a cargo bay, and three main engines. The crew cabin is where the astronauts live and work while they are in space. The orbiter is the only part of the Space Shuttle that goes into orbit.

External Fuel Tank is the main fuel tank for the Space Shuttle. It holds liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. After the fuels burn up, the tank drops back into the ocean after breaking up into thousands of pieces. It is the only part of the Space Shuttle that is not reusable.

Solid Rocket Boosters are two long, thin rockets that provide most of the Space Shuttle's lift during the first two minutes of flight. These boosters support the entire weight of the Space Shuttle's orbiter and fuel tank on the launch pad.

Although the outer, physical structure of the Space Shuttle resembles an airplane, there are important differences between the two. Compare and contrast both with regard to the following:

   *   "take off" versus "lift off/blast off"

   *   typical flying/orbiting patterns

   *   dependency on fuel during flight/orbit

   *   typical number of passengers

   *   reusable parts

   *   duration of flight/orbit

Print/braille the following Space Shuttle events on separate cards, shuffle them, and have the students sequence them from first to last.

   *   Shuttle is launched.

   *   Booster rockets fall away and parachute back to Earth.

   *   External fuel tank drops away and breaks up in Earth's atmosphere.

   *   Orbiter orbits Earth.

   *   Orbiter turns around and fires rockets to slow down.

   *   Orbiter prepares for reentry.

   *   Orbiter reenters Earth's atmosphere.

   *   Orbiter glides to landing.

Math Connection:

Have students research and prepare trivia questions related to important numbers associated with the Space Shuttle and use them to quiz each other. Examples of questions are the following:

   *   How many crew members does the Space Shuttle carry? [usually 5 to 7]

   *   How long does the orbiter usually stay in space? [5 to 16 days]

   *   How high is the Space Shuttle when the solid-fuel rocket boosters drop off? [about 28 miles high]

   *   How fast does the Space Shuttle travel around the Earth? [17,000 miles per hour]

   *   How long does it take the Space Shuttle to orbit the Earth? [about 90 minutes]

   *   What is the wingspan of the Space Shuttle? [78 feet]

   *   What is the length of the orbiter? [122 feet]

Ask students to research and make a graph of Space Shuttle launches since 1981. Which orbiter-Atlantis, Challenger, Columbia, Discovery, Endeavor-has the most recorded flights over the years? Which orbiter has the least? For a list of Space Shuttle flights by orbiter, visit http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/launch/orbiter_flights.html

Have students create a timeline of significant events in space exploration beginning in 1957 with the former Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1.

Language Connection:

Have students research and write a report on a famous space explorer. Possibilities include:

Yuri Gagarin
Wernher von Braun
Alan Shepherd
Valentina Tereshkova
Neil Armstrong
Buzz Aldrin
John Glenn
James Lovell
Sally Ride
Christa McAuliffe

Have students research and report to the class about some past Space Shuttle missions and experiments. Some examples are the following:

   *   In 1984, the Challenger crew launched a platform to learn how materials and biological samples are affected during long exposures to space.

   *   In 1989, the Atlantis crew released an unmanned Magellan probe to explore the planet Venus.

   *   In 1990, Discovery carried the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit.

Have students research and become familiar with two major Space Shuttle tragedies, Challenger in 1986 and Columbia in 2003. Encourage students to interview teachers, parents, and others about their personal memories of the two events. For more information about these two accidents, visit the following Websites:

http://history.nasa.gov/columbia/index.html
http://history.nasa.gov/Biographies/challenger.html

Conduct a classroom debate about the importance of space exploration and its associated costs.

Visual Adaptation:

Use the Space Shuttle Overlay to review the Space Shuttle's main parts-orbiter, rocket boosters, external fuel tank, and main engines. Emphasize that two perspectives are shown-side view and top view. If a 3-D model of the Space Shuttle is available, compare the model with the tactile image in side-by-side fashion. [Sources of Space Shuttle models are listed in the RESOURCES section of this guidebook.]

Science Tidbit:

Aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1983, Sally Ride became the first American woman astronaut to orbit Earth.

In 1998, Senator John Glenn, the first American in 1962 to orbit the Earth in a Mercury capsule, returned to space aboard Discovery. This journey gave him the record of being the oldest person to travel into space.

The next-generation exploration vehicle being designed by NASA's Constellation Program is called Orion. It will transport passengers and cargo to the International Space Station, the Moon, Mars, and beyond. Read about the latest developments at http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/orion/index.html

Visit the following Websites for more information about space exploration and the Space Shuttle:

*   NASA: All About the Space Shuttle
http://www.space.com/space-shuttle/

*   NASA: International Space Station
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/expeditions/index.html

*   NASA Spinoffs: Bringing Space Down to Earth
http://www.thespaceplace.com/nasa/spinoffs.html

*   NASA: Human Space Flight: Space Shuttle Gallery
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/gallery/images/shuttle/

*   NASA: Shuttle and Station Missions
http://www.nasa.gov/topics/shuttle_station/index.html

*   NASA: Kennedy Space Center
http://www.nasa.gov/centers/kennedy/home/index.html

Appendix A: Astronomy Overlays and Displays-Suggested Uses

Sense of Science: Astronomy overlays and displays are intended to reinforce many of the concepts explored throughout this guidebook, as well as those encountered in the classroom science curriculum. Visual contrast and tactile elements make these two-dimensional overlays and displays ideal for use with students who have visual impairments and blindness. The materials can also be shared and enjoyed with sighted classmates.

Below is a complete list of the overlays, fold-out displays, and trays that accompany Sense of Science: Astronomy, followed by suggested uses for these materials.

Overlays

I.   11" × 8.5" Astronomy Overlays

A.   Cross-Section of the Sun
B.   Lunar Eclipse
C.   Milky Way Galaxy
D.   Orbit of a Comet
E.   Phases of the Moon
F.   Planetary Orbits
G.   Relative Sizes of the Planets
H.   Solar Eclipse
I.   Space Shuttle
J.   Ursa Major/Ursa Minor

II.   Small Astronomy Overlays

A.   Moon Phases [with "Name" cards in braille and print]
B.   Galaxy Types [with "Name" cards in braille and print]

III.   Fold-Out Astronomy Displays

A.   Our Solar System Display [with "Name" cards]
B.   Northern Circumpolar Dome
C.   Relative Distances of the Planets

IV.   Trays

A.   Tray to hold 11" × 8.5" overlays
B.   4 (columns) × 2 (rows) tray to hold small overlays

Suggested Uses for Overlays and Displays

The Sense of Science: Astronomy overlays are best used with APH's Light Box or APH's Mini-Lite Box if used with a student with low vision. When using the overlays with a light box, first slip the needed size tray under the light box's ledges to provide a secure working surface. Then insert the selected print overlay into the tray followed by its tactile counterpart. The tactile overlay should always be placed on top of the print overlay. If you do not have access to a light box, insert a white piece of paper into the tray (or tray compartments) before adding the overlays to enhance the visual contrast and mask the underlying table surface.

11" × 8.5" Astronomy Overlays

Use the 11" × 8.5" Astronomy Overlays in combination with the large tray. As students explore the overlays, encourage discussion to reinforce tactile understanding by highlighting textures, line paths, perspectives, etc. The following are examples:

   *   What texture is used to illustrate the surface of the Moon? [A dimpled texture represents the craters of the Moon's surface.]

   *   How are imaginary lines depicted within a constellation? [Dotted lines link the stars.]

   *   What perspective is shown in the graphic-top view, side view, front view, or cross-sectional view? [The overlay of the Sun provides a cross-sectional view of the Sun's separate layers; the overlay of the Milky Way Galaxy shows two views (top and side); and the overlay of the Space Shuttle shows two views (front and side).]

   *   What are lead lines? [Low, insignificant lines that lead from the braille or print label to the part of the picture it identifies.]

   *   What is a cycle and how is a cycle indicated on the overlay of the Phases of the Moon? [Raised/print arrows direct the finger from one moon phase to the next.]

   *   How are umbral shadows tactilely represented in the overlays? [Umbral shadows shown on the Solar Eclipse and Lunar Eclipse overlays are represented with a low, rough texture that feels similar to sandpaper.]

   *   Compare the tactile/print overlay [e.g., Space Shuttle] to a three-dimensional model in a side-by-side fashion.

Note: A model of a Space Shuttle can be acquired from http://spacetoys.com/

Small Overlays: Galaxy Types and Moon Phases

Use the overlay cards of the Galaxy Types in combination with the 4 × 2 tray. Possibilities for activities include the following:

    a.   The teacher inserts the galaxy cards across the top row of the tray. The student then pairs the correct galaxy name with the actual print/tactile image. The print and braille name cards can be inserted into the separate tray compartments in the bottom row, with each name card placed directly below the image it identifies. Note that the upper-right corners of these overlays are diagonally cut for orientation purposes.

    b.   The teacher first inserts the galaxy name cards across the bottom of the tray. Then the student locates and inserts each matching galaxy image above the corresponding name card.

Use the overlays of the Moon Phases in combination with the 4 × 2 tray. Possibilities for activities include the following:

    a.   The teacher inserts the moon phase image overlays, minus the name cards, within the eight compartments. Use the top row compartments, from left to right, for the following moon phases: 1) New Moon, 2) Waxing Crescent, 3) First Quarter, and 4) Waxing Gibbous. Then use the bottom row compartments, from left to right, for the remaining moon phases: 5) Full Moon, 6) Waning Gibbous, 7) Last Quarter, and 8) Waning Crescent. This order represents the moon phases as they appear in their calendar sequence. The student then pairs the correct moon phase name with the actual print/tactile images. Print/braille name cards can be inserted into the separate compartments built into each image overlay so that each name card is placed directly below the moon phase it identifies. Note that the upper-right corners of the moon phase card overlays are diagonally cut for orientation purposes.

    b.   The teacher intentionally places the moon phase name cards in the wrong order. The student is then asked to rearrange the name cards so they are in the correct sequence.

    c.   The student independently places the moon phase image overlays and name cards within the tray. The large overlay of the Phases of the Moon can be used for reference and to emphasize the cyclic nature of the Moon's appearance from Earth's perspective.

Fold-Out Astronomy Displays

The Northern Circumpolar Dome can be used to reinforce concepts encountered in the "Creating Constellations" activity and in combination with the Ursa Major/Ursa Minor Overlay.

Our Solar System fold-out display can be used as an assessment tool to test the student's knowledge of each planet's position within the Solar System, as well as the position of the Sun and Asteroid Belt.

Assembly Instructions: Before using the Our Solar System Display, attach one ½-inch hook Velcro® circle to the back of each name label (e.g., Sun, Mercury, Venus, etc.). Then attach one ½-inch loop Velcro® circle on the fold-out display itself where a gap is encountered within each planet's orbital path, the Asteroid Belt, and the innermost circle (that represents the Sun).

Option: Print out full-color images of the Sun and eight planets obtained from the Internet. Size each image to a circular shape that fits comfortably on the fold-out display. Laminate each piece and then add a print or braille label (if desired). Apply hook Velcro to the back of each piece and use your created pieces in lieu of the provided print/braille name labels. Students might enjoy making these on their own. Their planets can be drawn with markers or made from collage/textured paper.

The Relative Distances of the Planets fold-out display (accordion-folded format) can be used to demonstrate the relative distances of the planets and Asteroid Belt from the Sun.

Appendix B: Astronomy Websites

ACE-Adapted Curriculum Enhancement: NASA Science Inquiry Materials for Visually Impaired
http://www.ace-education.org/

Aerospaceguide.net: Space Projects and Info
http://www.aerospaceguide.net/index.html

Amazing Space
http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/

Astronomy for Kids
http://library.thinkquest.org/3645/

Astronomy for Kids Online
http://www.astronomy-for-kids-online.com/

Astronomy Picture of the Day
http://antwrp.gsfc.nasa.gov/apod/astropix.html

Astronomy Web Guide
http://astronomywebguide.com/index.htm

Curious About Astronomy? Ask an Astronomer
http://curious.astro.cornell.edu/index.php

Discovery Education: Understanding the Universe
http://school.discovery.com/schooladventures/universe/

The Dome of the Sky(TM): Constellation List
http://domeofthesky.com/clicks/constlist.html

Exploratorium Observatory
http://www.exploratorium.edu/observatory/index.html

The Hubble Heritage Project
http://heritage.stsci.edu/index.html

Jet Propulsion Laboratory: California Institute of Technology: PlanetQuest
http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/

Kid's Cosmos-Student Science Education Center
http://www.kidscosmos.org/kid-stuff.html

KidsAstronomy
http://www.kidsastronomy.com

Kidz Exploring Space
http://library.thinkquest.org/CR0210901/

NASA Kids' Club
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forkids/kidsclub/flash/index.html

NASA Space Place
http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/en/kids/

National Geographic: Science and Space
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space

The Nine 8 Planets: A Multimedia Tour of the Solar System
http://nineplanets.org/

NOVA Online: Runaway Universe
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/universe/

Physlink.com: Physics & Astronomy Online
http://www.physlink.com

PlanetFacts.Net: More Space Facts
http://www.planetfacts.net/More-Space-Facts.html

Sea and Sky
http://www.seasky.org/index.html

Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
http://www.nasm.si.edu

Space.Com
http://www.space.com/

Space Today Online
http://www.spacetoday.org/STO.html

StarChild: A Learning Center for Young Astronomers
http://starchild.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/StarChild/StarChild.html

Views of the Solar System
http://www.solarviews.com/eng/homepage.htm

Welcome to the Planets(TM)
http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/

Windows to the Universe
http://www.windows.ucar.edu/windows.html

Zoom Astronomy
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy

* NOTE: Websites available at time of publication.

Appendix C: Resources

Carolina Biological Supply Company
2700 York Road
Burlington, NC 27215-3398
Tel: (800) 334-5551
Fax: (800) 222-7112
(Provides posters, telescopes, books, models, and videos/DVDs related to space science.)
www.carolina.com

Delta Education
80 Northwest Blvd.
Nashua, NH 03061-3000
Tel: (800) 258-1302
Fax: (800) 282-9560
(Provides products such as telescope kits, posters, models, books, and games.)
www.deltaeducation.com

Edmund Scientific
60 Pearce Avenue
Tonawanda, NY 14150
Tel: (800) 728-6999
Fax: (800) 828-3299
(Provides equipment, activities, and books related to space science.)
www.scientificsonline.com

ETA/Cuisenaire
500 Greenview Court
Vernon Hills, IL 60061
Tel: (800) 445-5985
Fax: (800) 875-9643-Customer Service
(Provides products such as school curriculum modules, telescopes, books, games, models, and videos.)
www.etacuisenaire.com

Kennedy Space Center
DNC Parks & Resorts at KSC, Inc.
Mail Code: DNPS, attn: Internet Retail
Kennedy Space Center, Florida 32899
Phone: (800) 621-9826
Fax: (321) 449-4434
[Provides educational space toys, models (e.g., Space Shuttle), and games.]
www.thespaceshop.com

Lakeshore Learning Materials
2695 E. Dominguez Street
Carson, CA 90895
Tel: (800) 421-5354
Fax: (800) 537-5403
(Provides books, puzzles, games, and science activity modules.)
www.lakeshorelearning.com

Mindware
2100 County Road C W
Roseville, MN 55113-2501
Tel: (800) 999-0398
Fax: (888) 299-9273
(Provides products such as Star Theater 2 and Glow-in-the-Dark Solar System Mobile Kit.)
www.mindwareonline.com

National Braille Press
88 St. Stephen Street
Boston, MA 02115
Tel: (800) 548-7323
(Publisher of Touch the Stars.)
www.braille.com

Paine Learning Aids Center
1178 Easton Road
Roslyn, PA 19001
Tel: (215) 885-6300
Fax: (215) 885-8082
(Provides models, puzzles, and science kits related to space science.)
www.painelearning.com

SkyScopes Space Toys
32 North Road
East Windsor, CT 06088
Tel: (877) 623-4624
Fax: (860) 654-1579
(Provides models, puzzles, posters, toys, replicas, books, etc., related to space science.)
www.spacetoys.com

Space Camp for Interested Visually Impaired Students (SCIVIS) [also known as Space Camp for the Blind]
Dan Oates, Coordinator
West Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind
P.O. Box 1034
Romney, WV 26757
Tel: (304) 822-4883
Fax: (304) 822-4898
(Coordinates week-long space camps at the US Space and Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, for students with visual impairments.)
E-mail: scivis@atlanticbb.net

Summit Learning
755 Rockwell Avenue
P.O. Box 755
Fort Atkinson, WI 53538-0755
Tel: (800) 777-8817
Fax: (800) 317-2194
(Provides games, DVDs, video library series, and transparencies related to astronomy.)
www.summitlearning.com

Glossary

________________________________________

A
________________________________________

Andromeda Galaxy
The closest spiral galaxy to the Milky Way.

Annular Eclipse
An eclipse in which a thin outer ring of the Sun's disk is not covered by the smaller dark disk of the Moon.

Aphelion
The place in a planet's or comet's orbit where it is farthest from the Sun.

Asteroid
A small rocky object, often irregular in shape, that orbits the Sun between Mars and Jupiter. It is also called a minor planet.

Asteroid Belt
A region of space between Mars and Jupiter where hundreds of thousands of asteroids orbit the Sun.

Astronaut
A person who travels beyond the Earth's atmosphere into space.

Astronomer
A scientist who studies the stars and celestial bodies.

Astronomical Unit (AU)
The distance unit based on the average distance between the Sun and the Earth-about 93 million miles (150 kilometers).

Astronomy
The scientific study of the Universe including planets, the stars, and galaxies.

Atmosphere
A layer of gas surrounding a planet, moon, or star.

Aurora
A luminous, atmospheric phenomenon known as aurora borealis in Earth's Northern Hemisphere and aurora australis in Earth's Southern Hemisphere.

Axis
The imaginary line through the center of a planet, moon, star, or galaxy around which it rotates.

________________________________________

B
________________________________________

Barred Spiral Galaxy
A galaxy with a bar-shaped central area with a spiral arm extending from each end.

Big Bang Theory
A theory that says the Universe was formed from a single point in space during a super-powerful explosion and that the Universe is continuing to expand.

Binary Asteroid
An asteroid that consists of two roughly equal parts that revolve around each other. It is also called a double asteroid.

Binary Star
A system of two stars orbiting a common center of gravity. Also called double stars.

Black Hole
A collapsed core of a massive star with so much mass and gravity that not even light can escape.

Blue Giant
A very large, hot star that lives for a relatively short time compared to other stars.

Brown Dwarf
A star whose mass is too small to have nuclear fusion, emitting no light or heat. It is also called a failed star.

________________________________________

C
________________________________________

Caloris Basin
A large crater on the surface of the planet Mercury.

Camelopardalis
A constellation in the Northern Hemisphere.

Cassini Division
A wide gap that separates Saturn's rings A and B; it is about 3,000 miles (4,800 kilometers) wide.

Cassiopeia
A constellation in the Northern Hemisphere.

Centaur Asteroid
An asteroid located between Jupiter and Neptune.

Cepheus
A constellation in the Northern Hemisphere.

Ceres
A dwarf planet that lies between Mars and Jupiter within the Asteroid Belt.

Charon
One of Pluto's companion moons.

Chromosphere
A layer of the Sun's atmosphere that lies between the photosphere and the corona.

Coma
A huge cloud of gas and dust surrounding the nucleus of a comet.

Comet
A ball of ice and rock that begins to vaporize when it gets close to the Sun, forming long gas-ion and dust tails.

Constellation
A group of stars that make an imaginary picture or pattern in the sky.

Convection Zone
The outermost layer of the Sun's interior characterized by a churning motion created when hot gases rise and then fall as they cool.

Core
The dense central area of a planet or a star.

Corona
The outermost part of the Sun's atmosphere. It is visible from Earth during a total solar eclipse.

Crater
A bowl-shaped depression caused by an object hitting the surface of a planet, moon, or asteroid.

Crescent Moon
A lunar phase when the Moon's surface appears less than half illuminated.

Crust
The outermost layer of a planet's surface.

________________________________________

D
________________________________________

Deimos
One of Mars' two moons.

Disk
The surface of the Sun or other celestial body projected against the sky.

Double Star
Two stars that appear close to one another in the sky.

Draco
A constellation in the Northern Hemisphere.

Dust Tail
Part of a comet's tail that curves away from the comet's head as it is blown by solar wind.

Dwarf Planet
A round object in our Solar System too small to dominate its region of space. An example is Pluto.

________________________________________

E
________________________________________

Earth
The third planet from the Sun.

Eccentricity
Extent to which an elliptical orbit departs from a circular one.

Eclipse
The shadow made when one object comes between another object and the Sun.

Ecliptic
The imaginary line in the sky, along the plane of the Solar System, where the Sun, Moon, and planets are found. The constellations of the Zodiac are found along this line.

Ellipse
The shape (a slightly flattened circle) of orbits of celestial objects.

Elliptical Galaxy
A ball-shape or oval-shape collection of hundreds of billions of old stars.

Elliptical Orbit
An orbit of a planet or other object that resembles a stretched-out circle.

Epsilon Ring
The brightest of Uranus's rings.

Equator
An imaginary line around a planet's middle, perpendicular to the axis of rotation.

Equinox
Occurs when the Sun appears directly above a planet's equator. At this time, day and night are of equal duration. The two yearly equinoxes are the vernal equinox and the autumnal equinox.

Eris
This Kuiper Belt object is the largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System.

External Fuel Tank
The main fuel tank for the Space Shuttle.

________________________________________

F
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First Quarter Moon
A lunar phase when one-half of the Moon appears illuminated by the Sun. The side illuminated is opposite that half illuminated during a Last (Third) Quarter Moon.

Full Moon
The lunar phase when the Moon's disk is fully lit by the Sun.

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G
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Galactic Year
The time it takes the Sun to revolve once around the center of the galaxy-about 225 million years.

Galaxy
A large collection of billions of stars with clouds of dust and gas.

Galilean Satellites
The four largest moons of Jupiter-Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa.

Gas Giant
A large planet composed of mainly hydrogen and lacks a solid surface. The four gas giants are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Gas-Ion Tail
The blue part of a comet's tail, composed of gases, that streams away from the comet's head in a straight line as it is blown by solar wind.

Geocentric Model
A model of the Universe that places the Earth in the center of the Solar System.

Gibbous Moon
A lunar phase when the Moon's surface appears more than half, but not fully, illuminated.

Gossamer Ring
Jupiter's outermost ring consisting of three faint rings.

Gravity
The invisible force between massive bodies that attracts one to the other.

Great Red Spot
A huge storm on the planet Jupiter.

Greenhouse Effect
The process where carbon dioxide and other gases in an atmosphere trap heat, making a planet's surface warmer.

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H
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Halley's Comet
A periodic short-period comet that returns about every 76 years.

Heliocentric Model
A model that places the Sun in the center of the Solar System.

Hemisphere
Half a sphere.

Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
A graph that shows the relationship of a star's temperature to its color, mass, spectral class, and luminosity.

Hubble Space Telescope
Named for astronomer Edwin Hubble, this telescope orbits Earth and takes pictures of object in space.

Hydra
One of Pluto's companion moons.

Hydrogen Cloud
A cloud of hydrogen that surrounds the coma of some comets.

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I
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Ice Giant
A subclass of gas giants that includes planets Neptune and Uranus that are composed mostly of water, ammonia, and methane.

Inferior Planets
Planets located between Earth and the Sun. These planets include Mercury and Venus.

International Astronomical Union
Official organization that defines standards for use in astronomy.

Interstellar Matter
The gas and dust that occupies the space between the stars within a galaxy.

Irregular Galaxy
A small galaxy that has no obvious shape or structure.

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J
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Jovian Planets
Includes the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Jupiter
The fifth planet from the Sun.

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K
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Kuiper Belt
A region in the Solar System, beyond the orbit of Neptune, that is home to short-period comets and ice dwarf planets.

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L
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Last (Third) Quarter Moon
The lunar phase when the Moon is half-illuminated. The side illuminated is opposite that half illuminated during a First Quarter Moon.

Lava
Molten rock.

Light-Year
An astronomical unit of measurement equal to the distance light travels in a year-approximately 6 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers).

Local Group
The galaxy cluster to which the Milky Way belongs.

Luminosity
The total amount of light that an object (e.g., star) radiates.

Lunar
Anything dealing with the Moon.

Lunar Eclipse
Occurs when the Earth lies between the Sun and the Moon. All or part of the Sun's light is blocked from the Moon.

Lunar Month
The amount of time it takes for the Moon to pass through each of its phases and return to its original position (e.g., New Moon)-29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes.

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M
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Main Belt Asteroid
One of many asteroids located within the Asteroid Belt between Mars and Jupiter.

Main Sequence Stars
Stars that appear as a continuous band on the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. Most stars within our galaxy, including our Sun, are currently main sequence stars.

Mantle
A layer of molten rock that lies between the crust and the core of a planet or moon.

Maria
Dark, relatively smooth areas on the surface of the Moon.

Mars
The fourth planet from the Sun.

Mass
The amount of matter that something is made of.

Matter
Anything that has both mass and volume.

Mercury
The nearest planet to the Sun.

Meteor
A bright steak of light in the sky caused by the entry into Earth's atmosphere by a meteoroid. Also called shooting star or falling star.

Meteor Shower
A brief, but spectacular display of meteors caused by the Earth moving across the orbit of a comet.

Meteorite
A rock that has traveled through Earth's atmosphere and lands on its surface.

Meteoroid
A small particle of rock or dust from a comet, asteroid, and other celestial body traveling through space.

Milky Way Galaxy
Name of the galaxy to which Earth belongs, including the Sun and its Solar System.

Minor Planet
Another name for an asteroid.

Moon
A natural satellite that rotates around a planet.

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N
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NASA
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration which is in charge of all space programs for the United States.

Near-Earth Asteroid
An asteroid that travels close to the Sun and crosses Earth's orbit.

Nebula
A cloud of gas and/or dust in interstellar space sent out by a dying collapsing star.

Neptune
The eighth planet from the Sun.

Neutron Star
A collapsed star made up almost entirely of neutrons.

New Moon
The lunar phase when the Moon is not visible from Earth.

Nix
One of Pluto's companion moons.

Northern Circumpolar Constellations
Constellations that circle the North Star (Polaris) and are visible all year.

Nuclear Fusion
A reaction in stars that fuses lighter elements into heavier ones. The Sun fuses hydrogen to become helium.

Nucleus
The central point around which other things are arranged-e.g., the head of a comet.

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O
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Olympus Mons
The largest volcano in the Solar System, located on the planet Mars.

Oort Cloud
A large spherical region surrounding the Solar System far beyond Pluto and the Kuiper Belt. Source of long-period comets.

Orbit
The elliptical path of one body around another (e.g., planet around a star, a moon around a planet, or a star around the center of a galaxy).

Orbiter
The part of the Space Shuttle that looks like an airplane, travels into space with people and cargo, and returns to Earth.

Orion Arm
The spiral arm of the Milky Way in which the Solar System resides.

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P
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Partial Solar Eclipse
When the Moon covers only part of the Sun's disk from Earth's perspective.

Path of Totality
The track of the Moon's umbral shadow as it sweeps across the Earth's surface during a total solar eclipse.

Penumbra
The area of partial illumination on either side of the darkest part (the umbra) of a shadow caused by an ellipse.

Perihelion
The place in a planet's or comet's orbit where it is closest to the Sun.

Phase
How a planet or moon looks from Earth at some part of its orbit when it is lit by the Sun.

Phobos
The largest moon of the planet Mars.

Photosphere
Considered the "surface" of the Sun and makes the Sun appear as a solid sphere.

Planet
A spherical object orbiting the Sun that dominates its area of the Solar System and does not produce its own light.

Planetary Rings
Belts of rocks, ice, and dust orbiting in a disk-shaped area over a planet's equator.

Planetoid
Another term for an asteroid.

Pluto
Once considered the ninth planet, it is now defined as a dwarf planet, as well as a Kuiper Belt object.

Plutoid
A dwarf planet that resides beyond the orbit of Neptune.

Pointer Stars
Two or more stars in a constellation that point the way to another constellation.

Polaris
The North Star found at the tip of the handle of the Little Dipper (Ursa Minor).

Pole
The end points of a world's axis of rotation (e.g., the Earth's north and south poles).

Prominence
A visible loop of glowing, hot gas that extends outward from the Sun's surface into its chromosphere or corona layer.

Pulsar
A neutron star that spins very rapidly.

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R
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Radiation Zone
The zone in the interior middle of the Sun (and other stars) where energy travels by radiation.

Red Dwarf
A small, dim star that that will live for many billions of years. It is the most common type of star.

Red Giant
Forms during the later stages of a star's evolution as it runs low on hydrogen.

Retrograde Rotation
A rotation in the opposite direction from the rotation of most of the Solar System.

Revolution
The motion, or orbit, of a planet around the Sun, or a moon's orbit around its planet.

Ring Arc
Bright, crescent-shaped segments found within Neptune's outermost ring.

Rocket
A vehicle that can escape from the Earth's gravity and travel into space.

Rotation
The motion of an object turning on its own axis.

Rover
A vehicle for exploring the surface of a planet or moon.

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S
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Satellite
Any object that orbits a larger object. There are natural satellites (e.g., moons) and man-made satellites (e.g., Hubble Space Telescope).

Saturn
The sixth planet from the Sun.

Season
A division in the year (e.g., winter, spring, summer, and fall) characterized by particular weather and temperature conditions, and amount and angle of sunlight.

Shepherd Moon
A small moon (e.g., Saturn's Pandora and Prometheus) that orbits inside or outside a ring and keeps the ring particles in place by its gravitational force.

Solar
Anything to do with the Sun.

Solar Eclipse
Occurs when the Moon lies between the Earth and the Sun.

Solar Flare
Sudden eruption of intense radiation from the Sun's surface.

Solar System
The Sun, or any star, and its family of planets and other objects held together by gravity.

Solar Wind
Streams of charged particles flowing out from the Sun at a high speed.

Solid Rocket Boosters
Two long, thin rockets that provide most of the Space Shuttle's lift during the first two minutes of flight.

Solstice
Happens twice a year (mid-summer and mid-winter) when Earth's poles are tilted at the maximum toward or away from the Sun.

Space
Everything in the Universe, expanding outwards.

Space Probe
A robot craft sent from Earth to explore another planet, moon, or outer space.

Space Shuttle
A reusable spacecraft designed to take people and cargo between Earth and space.

Space Station
A large satellite and can be occupied by people for long periods of time so that experiments can be conducted.

Spiral Galaxy
A galaxy made of billions of stars held together by gravity. It revolves around a central giant black hole.

Star
A very hot ball of gas that generates energy in its center and shines by the light of its own energy.

Starburst Galaxy
A galaxy that results after a collision between two galaxies and is the location of stars forming at a very high rate.

Sun
Earth's own star and center of the Solar System.

Sunspots
Large dark spots (often in pairs) on the Sun's photosphere.

Supercluster
A cluster of a cluster of galaxies.

Supergiants
Largest and rarest of known stars in the Universe. They are typically brighter and larger than a giant star.

Superior Planets
The planets with orbits farther from the Sun than Earth's orbit. These planets include Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

Supernova
The catastrophic explosion of a huge old star that causes the star to shine sometimes as bright as a whole galaxy.

Synchronous Orbit
An orbit in which the orbiting body has an orbital period equal to the rotational period of the body that it is orbiting.

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T
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Tail
The stream of visible gases and dust that comes off a comet as it passes close to the Sun.

Telescope
An instrument made of lenses and mirrors that helps humans to see far into space.

Terrestrial Planets
The four planets closest to the Sun that are primarily composed of rock and metal and have no rings. These include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

Titan
The largest moon of the planet Saturn.

Total Solar Eclipse
When the Moon completely blocks out the Sun's disk from Earth's perspective.

Trans-Neptunian Object
An object that orbits the Sun on the outer edge of the Solar System, beyond Neptune.

Trojan Asteroids
Groups of asteroids that share Jupiter's orbital path.

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U
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Umbra
The region of total darkness in the shadow caused by an eclipse.

Universe
Everything in which we are aware including planets, stars, galaxies, matter, energy, space, and time.

Uranus
The seventh planet from the Sun.

Ursa Major
A constellation visible from the Northern Hemisphere that contains the Big Dipper.

Ursa Minor
A constellation visible from the Northern Hemisphere that is also known as the Little Dipper. This constellation includes the North Star.

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V
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Valles Marineris
A grand canyon that runs across one-fourth of Mars' surface.

Variable Star
A star that fluctuates in brightness.

Venus
The second planet from the Sun.

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W
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Waning
Decreasing in illumination.

Waxing
Increasing in illumination.

White Dwarf
A dying star that has exhausted most of its nuclear fuel and has collapsed to a small size.

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Y
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Yellow Dwarf
An ordinary star such as our Sun.

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Z
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Zodiac Constellations
An imaginary band of constellations that lie along the Sun's Ecliptic.


Bibliography

Beasant, P. (1992). 1000 facts about space. New York: Kingfisher.

Burnham, R. (2000). The Reader's Digest children's atlas of the universe. Pleasantville, NY: Reader's Digest Children's Books.

Clark, S. (2000). Journey to the stars. Hong Kong: Barnes & Nobel Books.

Dyer, A. (2007). Space. New York: Simon & Schuster Books for Young Readers.

Evans, C. (Ed.). (1994). Usborne understanding science: Astronomy. Tulsa, OK: EDC Publishing.

Graham, I., Taylor, B., Farndon, J., & Oxdale, C. (1999). Science encyclopedia. China: Barnes & Noble, Inc.

National Geographic Society. (2002). Glencoe science: Astronomy. New York: Glencoe McGraw-Hill.

Pearce, Q. L. (1993). The science almanac for kids. New York: RGA Publishing Group, Inc.

Scholastic. (2008). The ultimate interactive atlas of space. New York: Scholastic, Inc.

Steele, P. (1995). Young observer: Black holes and other space phenomena. New York: Scholastic, Inc.

VanCleaves, J. (2000). Janice VanCleave's Solar System. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Whittingham, R. (1999). The astronomy fact book. Chippewa Falls, WI: Hubbard Scientific, Inc.

Wyatt, V., & Fernandes, M. (2002). Space: Frequently asked questions. Tonawanda, New York: Kids Can Press Ltd.


Note:   Websites listed throughout the Sense of Science: Astronomy activities and appendices were accessed repeatedly for additional information throughout the course of product development.
